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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about writing prose. For writing style guides, see style guide.

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2009)

This article's tone or style may not reflect the formal tone used on Wikipedia. Specific concerns may be found on the talk page. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (September 2009)
Writing style is the manner in which an author chooses to write to his or her audience. A style reveals both the writer's personality and voice, but it also shows how she or he perceives the audience, and chooses conceptual writing style which reveal those choices by which the writer may change the conceptual world of the overall character of the work. This might be done by a simple change of words; a syntactical structure, parsing prose, adding diction, and organizing figures of thought into usable frameworks. Certainly, there are similar and analogous questions of style and audience that exist in the choices of expressive possibilities in speech.
Contents [hide]
1 Constraints on style
1.1 Situation and purpose
2 Stylistic choices
2.1 Sentence forms
2.1.1 The loose sentence
2.1.2 The periodic sentence
2.1.3 The balanced sentence
2.1.4 Diction
2.2 Connotation
2.3 Punctuation
2.3.1 Clichés
3 Bibliography
4 See also
[edit]Constraints on style

[edit]Situation and purpose
The writer needs to tailor style to the situation. For example, the same person writing a letter to the same reader would use a different style depending on whether it is a letter of complaint, a letter of condolence, or a business letter. The author needs to decide whether the goal of the writing is to inform, persuade, or entertain.
[edit]Stylistic choices

[edit]Sentence forms
A writer controls not only the density of prose but its distribution. Within the rules of grammar, the writer can arrange words in many ways. A sentence may state the main proposition first and then modify it; or it may contain language to prepare the reader before stating the main proposition.
Varying the style may avoid monotony. However, in technical writing, using different styles to make two similar utterances makes the reader ask whether the use of different styles was intended to carry additional meaning.
Stylistic choices may be influenced by the culture. In the modern age, for instance, the loose sentence has been favored in all modes of discourse. In classical times, the periodic sentence held equal or greater favor, and during the Age of Enlightenment, the balanced sentence was a favorite of writers.
[edit]The loose sentence
The most common sentence in modern usage, the loose sentence begins with the main point (an independent clause), followed by one or more subordinate clauses. For example:
Uncle Tom's Cabin is a very influential novel, having its self-righteous, virtuous sentimentality, much in common with Cat in the Hat.
The cat sat on the mat, purring softly, having licked his paws.
According to Francis Christensen:
The loose sentence ... characterized the anti-Ciceronian movement in the seventeenth century. This movement, according to Morris W. Croll [“The Baroque Style in Prose,” (1929)] began with Montaigne and Bacon and continued with such men as Donne, Browne, Taylor, Pascal. To Montaigne, its art was the art of being natural; to Pascal, its eloquence was the eloquence that mocks formal eloquence; to Bacon, it presented knowledge so that it could be examined, not so that it must be accepted. (in Winterowd, 'Contemporary Rhetoric: A Conceptual Background with Readings,' p.348)
[edit]The periodic sentence
In general, a periodic sentence places the main point in the middle or at the end of the sentence. In the former case, the main point is modified by subordinate clauses before and after its position in the sentence. In the latter case, the main point is modified by preceding subordinate clauses.
Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison. (Henry David Thoreau)
The purpose of such form is well-stated by Adams Sherman Hill in The Foundation of Rhetoric (1897):
To secure force in a sentence, it is necessary not only to choose the strongest words and to be as concise as is consistent with clearness, but also to arrange words, phrases, and clauses in the order which gives a commanding position to what is most important, and thus fixes the attention on the central idea.
[edit]The balanced sentence
A balanced sentence is characterized by parallel structure: two or more parts of the sentence have the same form, emphasizing similarities or differences.
[edit]Diction
Depending on the mode in which the writer is writing, diction can also pertain to the writer's style. Argumentative and expository prose on a particular subject matter frequently makes use of a set of jargon in which the subject matter is commonly discussed. By contrast, narrative and descriptive prose is open to the vast variety of words. Insofar as a style of diction can be discerned, however, it is best to examine the diction against a number of spectrums:
Abstract-concrete: how much of the diction is physical?
General-specific: to what degree is the diction precise, to what degree is it vague?
Denotation-connotation
Literal-metaphorical
Other attributes of diction include:
Density
Length
[edit]Connotation
The connotation of a word refers to the special meaning , apart from its dictionary definition, that it may convey. Connotation especially depends on the audience. The word "dog" denotes any animal from the genus canis, but it may connote friendship to one reader and terror to another. This partly depends on the reader's personal dealings with dogs, but the author can provide context to guide the reader's interpretation.
Deliberate use of connotation may involve selection of a word to convey more than its dictionary meaning, or substitution of another word that has a different shade of meaning. The many words for dogs have a spectrum of implications regarding the dog's training, obedience, or expected role, and may even make a statement about the social status of its owner ("lap dog" versus "cur"). Even synonyms have different connotations: slender, thin, skinny may each convey different images to the reader's mind. The writer should choose the connotation, positive, negative, or neutral, that supports the mood.
Writing for the learned, connotation may involve etymology or make reference to classic works. In schoolbooks, awareness of connotation can avoid attracting extraneous ideas (as when writing "Napoleon was a bigger influence than Frederick the Great on world history" provokes thoughts of Napoleon's physical stature). In encyclopedias, words should connote authority and dispassion; the writer should avoid words whose connotations suggest bias, such as pejorative words.
[edit]Punctuation
Punctuation is now so standardized that it rarely is a factor in a writer's style. The same is true for gratuitous changes to spelling and grammar, unless the goal is to represent a regional or ethnic dialect in which such changes are customary.
[edit]Clichés
Some figures of speech are phrases that briefly describe a complicated concept through connotation. However, some of these phrases are used so frequently that they have lost their novelty, sincerity, and perhaps even their meaning. They are disparagingly referred to as clichés or bromides. Whether a given expression has fallen into this category is a matter of opinion. A reader who knows, or is a member of, the target audience may have a strong opinion that one or the other alternative seems better-written.
[edit]Bibliography

Fawcett, Susan (2004). Evergreen: A Guide to Writing With Readings. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-27387-5.
Polking, Kirk (1990). Writing A to Z. Writer's Digest Books. ISBN 0-89879-556-7.
Rozakis, Laurie (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style, 2nd Edition. Alpha. ISBN 1-59257-115-8
Shaw, Harry (1965). A Complete Course in Freshman English. Harper & Row.
Strunk, William and E. B. White. (1959). The Elements of Style. MacMillan Publishing Co. ISBN 0-02-418220-6.
Watkins, Floyd C., William B. Dillingham, and Edwin T. Martin. (1974). Practical English Handbook. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-16822-8.
Williams, Joseph (2007) Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace. Pearson Longman ISBN 032-147935-1 ISBN 978-032-147935-8
Zinsser, William (2001). On Writing Well. Quill. ISBN 0-06-000664-1. ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11046016458.html Wed, 12 Oct 2011 20:13:31 +0900 fish 魚の好きな食べ方 ブログネタ：魚の好きな食べ方 参加中
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Fish (disambiguation).

Fish
Fossil range: Ordovician–Neogene
PreЄЄOSDCPTJKPgN

A giant grouper at the Georgia Aquarium, seen swimming among schools of other fish

The ornate red lionfish as seen from a head-on view
Scientific classification
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
(unranked)Craniata
Included groups
Jawless fish
†Armoured fish
Cartilaginous fish
Ray-finned fish
Lobe-finned fishes
Excluded groups
Tetrapods
Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate (or craniate) animals that lacks limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups.
Most fish are "cold-blooded", or ectothermic, allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change, though some of the large active swimmers like white shark and tuna can hold a higher core temperature.[1][2] Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams (e.g., char and gudgeon) to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans (e.g., gulpers and anglerfish). At 32,000 species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other class of vertebrates.[3]
Fish, especially as food, are an important resource worldwide. Commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries (see fishing) or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean (see aquaculture). They are also caught by recreational fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers, and exhibited in public aquaria. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, and as the subjects of art, books and movies.
Because the term "fish" is defined negatively, and excludes the tetrapods (i.e., the amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) which descend from within the same ancestry, it is paraphyletic, and is not considered a proper grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces (also ichthyes) is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification.
Contents [hide]
1 Diversity of fish
2 Taxonomy
3 Anatomy
3.1 Respiration
3.2 Circulation
3.3 Digestion
3.4 Excretion
3.5 Scales
3.6 Sensory and nervous system
3.6.1 Central nervous system
3.6.2 Sense organs
3.6.2.1 Vision
3.6.3 Capacity for pain
3.7 Muscular system
3.8 Homeothermy
3.9 Reproductive system
3.9.1 Organs
3.9.2 Reproductive method
3.10 Immune system
4 Diseases
5 Evolution
6 Conservation
6.1 Overfishing
6.2 Habitat destruction
6.3 Exotic species
7 Importance to humans
7.1 Aquarium collecting
7.2 Economic importance
7.3 Recreation
7.4 Culture
8 Terminology
8.1 Shoal or school?
8.2 Fish or fishes?
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Diversity of fish



Fish come in many shapes and sizes. This is a sea dragon, a close relative of the seahorse. Their leaf-like appendages enable them to blend in with floating seaweed.
Main article: Diversity of fish
The term "fish" most precisely describes any non-tetrapod craniate (i.e. an animal with a skull and in most cases a backbone) that has gills throughout life and whose limbs, if any, are in the shape of fins.[4] Unlike groupings such as birds or mammals, fish are not a single clade but a paraphyletic collection of taxa, including hagfishes, lampreys, sharks and rays, ray-finned fish, coelacanths, and lungfish.[5][6] Indeed, lungfish and coelacanths are closer relatives of tetrapods (such as mammals, birds, amphibians, etc.) than of other fish such as ray-finned fish or sharks, so the last common ancestor of all fish is also an ancestor to tetrapods. As paraphyletic groups are no longer recognised in modern systematic biology, the use of the term "fish" as a biological group must be avoided.
Many types of aquatic animals commonly referred to as "fish" are not fish in the sense given above; examples include shellfish, cuttlefish, starfish, crayfish and jellyfish. In earlier times, even biologists did not make a distinction – sixteenth century natural historians classified also seals, whales, amphibians, crocodiles, even hippopotamuses, as well as a host of aquatic invertebrates, as fish.[7] However, according the definition above, all mammals, including Cetaceans like Whales and Dolphins, are not fish. In some contexts, especially in aquaculture, the true fish are referred to as finfish (or fin fish) to distinguish them from these other animals.
A typical fish is ectothermic, has a streamlined body for rapid swimming, extracts oxygen from water using gills or uses an accessory breathing organ to breathe atmospheric oxygen, has two sets of paired fins, usually one or two (rarely three) dorsal fins, an anal fin, and a tail fin, has jaws, has skin that is usually covered with scales, and lays eggs.
Each criterion has exceptions. Tuna, swordfish, and some species of sharks show some warm-blooded adaptations—they can heat their bodies significantly above ambient water temperature.[5] Streamlining and swimming performance varies from fish such as tuna, salmon, and jacks that can cover 10–20 body-lengths per second to species such as eels and rays that swim no more than 0.5 body-lengths per second.[5] Many groups of freshwater fish extract oxygen from the air as well as from the water using a variety of different structures. Lungfish have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods, gouramis have a structure called the labyrinth organ that performs a similar function, while many catfish, such as Corydoras extract oxygen via the intestine or stomach.[8] Body shape and the arrangement of the fins is highly variable, covering such seemingly un-fishlike forms as seahorses, pufferfish, anglerfish, and gulpers. Similarly, the surface of the skin may be naked (as in moray eels), or covered with scales of a variety of different types usually defined as placoid (typical of sharks and rays), cosmoid (fossil lungfish and coelacanths), ganoid (various fossil fish but also living gars and bichirs), cycloid, and ctenoid (these last two are found on most bony fish).[9] There are even fish that live mostly on land. Mudskippers feed and interact with one another on mudflats and go underwater to hide in their burrows.[10] The catfish Phreatobius cisternarum lives in underground, phreatic habitats, and a relative lives in waterlogged leaf litter.[11][12]
Fish range in size from the huge 16-metre (52 ft) whale shark to the tiny 8-millimetre (0.3 in) stout infantfish.
Fish species diversity is roughly divided equally between marine (oceanic) and freshwater ecosystems. Coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific constitute the center of diversity for marine fishes, whereas continental freshwater fishes are most diverse in large river basins of tropical rainforests, especially the Amazon, Congo, and Mekong basins. More than 5,600 fish species inhabit Neotropical freshwaters alone, such that Neotropical fishes represent about 10% of all vertebrate species on the Earth.
Taxonomy

Fish are a paraphyletic group: that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods, which are not fish. For this reason, groups such as the "Class Pisces" seen in older reference works are no longer used in formal classifications.
Traditional classification divide fish into three extant classes, and with extinct forms sometimes classified within the tree, sometimes as their own classes:[13][14]
Class Agnatha (Jawless fish)
Subclass Cyclostomata (hagfish and lampreys)
Subclass Ostracodermi (armoured jawless fish) †
Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
Subclass Elasmobranchii (sharks and rayes)
Subclass Holocephali (chimaeras and extinct relatives)
Class Placodermi (armoured fish) †
Class Acanthodii ("spiny sharks", sometimes classified under bony fishes)†
Class Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Subclass Actinopterygii (ray finned fishes)
Subclass Sarcopterygii (fleshy finned fishes, ancestors of tetrapods)
The above scheme is the one most commonly encountered in non-specialist and general works. Many of the above groups are paraphyletic, in that they have given rise to successive groups: Agnathans are ancestral to Chondrichthyes, who again have given rise to Acanthodiians, the ancestors of Osteichthyes. With the arrival of phylogenetic nomenclature, the fishes has been spit up into a more detailed scheme, with the following major groups:
Class Myxini (hagfish)
Class Pteraspidomorphi † (early jawless fish)
Class Thelodonti †
Class Anaspida †
Class Petromyzontida or Hyperoartia
Petromyzontidae (lampreys)
Class Conodonta (conodonts) †
Class Cephalaspidomorphi † (early jawless fish)
(unranked) Galeaspida †
(unranked) Pituriaspida †
(unranked) Osteostraci †
Infraphylum Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
Class Placodermi † (armoured fish)
Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
Class Acanthodii † (spiny sharks)
Superclass Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
Subclass Chondrostei
Order Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes)
Order Polypteriformes (reedfishes and bichirs).
Subclass Neopterygii
Infraclass Holostei (gars and bowfins)
Infraclass Teleostei (many orders of common fish)
Class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)
Subclass Coelacanthimorpha (coelacanths)
Subclass Dipnoi (lungfish)
† - indicates extinct taxon
Some palaeontologists contend that because Conodonta are chordates, they are primitive fish. For a fuller treatment of this taxonomy, see the vertebrate article.
The position of hagfish in the phylum chordata is not settled. Phylogenetic research in 1998 and 1999 supported the idea that the hagfish and the lampreys form a natural group, the Cyclostomata, that is a sister group of the Gnathostomata.[15][16]
The various fish groups account for more than half of vertebrate species. There are almost 28,000 known extant species, of which almost 27,000 are bony fish, with 970 sharks, rays, and chimeras and about 108 hagfish and lampreys.[17] A third of these species fall within the nine largest families; from largest to smallest, these families are Cyprinidae, Gobiidae, Cichlidae, Characidae, Loricariidae, Balitoridae, Serranidae, Labridae, and Scorpaenidae. About 64 families are monotypic, containing only one species. The final total of extant species may grow to exceed 32,500.[18]
Anatomy

Main article: Fish anatomy


The anatomy of Lampanyctodes hectoris
(1) – operculum (gill cover), (2) – lateral line, (3) – dorsal fin, (4) – fat fin, (5) – caudal peduncle, (6) – caudal fin, (7) – anal fin, (8) – photophores, (9) – pelvic fins (paired), (10) – pectoral fins (paired)
Respiration
Most fish exchange gases using gills on either side of the pharynx. Gills consist of threadlike structures called filaments. Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide. Fish exchange gases by pulling oxygen-rich water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills. In some fish, capillary blood flows in the opposite direction to the water, causing countercurrent exchange. The gills push the oxygen-poor water out through openings in the sides of the pharynx. Some fish, like sharks and lampreys, possess multiple gill openings. However, bony fish have a single gill opening on each side. This opening is hidden beneath a protective bony cover called an operculum.
Juvenile bichirs have external gills, a very primitive feature that they share with larval amphibians.
Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended time periods. Amphibious fish such as the mudskipper can live and move about on land for up to several days, or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen depleted water. Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms. The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly. The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts.[19] Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way. Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. Labyrinth fish (such as gouramis and bettas) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably snakeheads, pikeheads, and the Clariidae catfish family.
Breathing air is primarily of use to fish that inhabit shallow, seasonally variable waters where the water's oxygen concentration may seasonally decline. Fish dependent solely on dissolved oxygen, such as perch and cichlids, quickly suffocate, while air-breathers survive for much longer, in some cases in water that is little more than wet mud. At the most extreme, some air-breathing fish are able to survive in damp burrows for weeks without water, entering a state of aestivation (summertime hibernation) until water returns.


Tuna gills inside of the head. The fish head is oriented snout-downwards, with the view looking towards the mouth.
Air breathing fish can be divided into obligate air breathers and facultative air breathers. Obligate air breathers, such as the African lungfish, must breathe air periodically or they suffocate. Facultative air breathers, such as the catfish Hypostomus plecostomus, only breathe air if they need to and will otherwise rely on their gills for oxygen. Most air breathing fish are facultative air breathers that avoid the energetic cost of rising to the surface and the fitness cost of exposure to surface predators.[19]
Circulation
Fish have a closed-loop circulatory system. The heart pumps the blood in a single loop throughout the body. In most fish, the heart consists of four parts, including two chambers and an entrance and exit.[20] The first part is the sinus venosus, a thin-walled sac that collects blood from the fish's veins before allowing it to flow to the second part, the atrium, which is a large muscular chamber. The atrium serves as a one-way antechamber, sends blood to the third part, ventricle. The ventricle is another thick-walled, muscular chamber and it pumps the blood, first to the fourth part, bulbus arteriosus, a large tube, and then out of the heart. The bulbus arteriosus connects to the aorta, through which blood flows to the gills for oxygenation.
Digestion
Jaws allow fish to eat a wide variety of food, including plants and other organisms. Fish ingest food through the mouth and break it down in the esophagus. In the stomach, food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption.
Excretion
As with many aquatic animals, most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills. Blood wastes are filtered by the kidneys.
Saltwater fish tend to lose water because of osmosis. Their kidneys return water to the body. The reverse happens in freshwater fish: they tend to gain water osmotically. Their kidneys produce dilute urine for excretion. Some fish have specially adapted kidneys that vary in function, allowing them to move from freshwater to saltwater.
Scales
Main article: Scale (zoology)#Fish scales
The scales of fish originate from the mesoderm (skin); they may be similar in structure to teeth.
Sensory and nervous system


Dorsal view of the brain of the rainbow trout
Central nervous system
Fish typically have quite small brains relative to body size compared with other vertebrates, typically one-fifteenth the brain mass of a similarly sized bird or mammal.[21] However, some fish have relatively large brains, most notably mormyrids and sharks, which have brains about as massive relative to body weight as birds and marsupials.[22]
Fish brains are divided into several regions. At the front are the olfactory lobes, a pair of structures that receive and process signals from the nostrils via the two olfactory nerves.[21] The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell, such as hagfish, sharks, and catfish. Behind the olfactory lobes is the two-lobed telencephalon, the structural equivalent to the cerebrum in higher vertebrates. In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with olfaction.[21] Together these structures form the forebrain.
Connecting the forebrain to the midbrain is the diencephalon (in the diagram, this structure is below the optic lobes and consequently not visible). The diencephalon performs functions associated with hormones and homeostasis.[21] The pineal body lies just above the diencephalon. This structure detects light, maintains circadian rhythms, and controls color changes.[21]
The midbrain or mesencephalon contains the two optic lobes. These are very large in species that hunt by sight, such as rainbow trout and cichlids.[21]
The hindbrain or metencephalon is particularly involved in swimming and balance.[21] The cerebellum is a single-lobed structure that is typically the biggest part of the brain.[21] Hagfish and lampreys have relatively small cerebellae, while the mormyrid cerebellum is massive and apparently involved in their electrical sense.[21]
The brain stem or myelencephalon is the brain's posterior.[21] As well as controlling some muscles and body organs, in bony fish at least, the brain stem governs respiration and osmoregulation.[21]
Sense organs
Most fish possess highly developed sense organs. Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human's (see vision in fishes). Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell. Although they have ears, many fish may not hear very well. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey.[23] Some fish, such as catfish and sharks, have organs that detect weak electric currents on the order of millivolt.[24] Other fish, like the South American electric fishes Gymnotiformes, can produce weak electric currents, which they use in navigation and social communication.
Fish orient themselves using landmarks and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols. Fish behavior in mazes reveals that they possess spatial memory and visual discrimination.[25]
Vision
Main article: Vision in fishes
Vision is an important sensory system for most species of fish. Fish eyes are similar to those of terrestrial vertebrates like birds and mammals, but have a more spherical lens. Their retinas generally have both rod cells and cone cells (for scotopic and photopic vision), and most species have colour vision. Some fish can see ultraviolet and some can see polarized light. Amongst jawless fish, the lamprey has well-developed eyes, while the hagfish has only primitive eyespots.[26] Fish vision shows adaptation to their visual environment, for example deep sea fishes have eyes suited to the dark environment.
Capacity for pain
Further information: Pain in fish
Experiments done by William Tavolga provide evidence that fish have pain and fear responses. For instance, in Tavolga’s experiments, toadfish grunted when electrically shocked and over time they came to grunt at the mere sight of an electrode.[27]
In 2003, Scottish scientists at the University of Edinburgh and the Roslin Institute concluded that rainbow trout exhibit behaviors often associated with pain in other animals. Bee venom and acetic acid injected into the lips resulted in fish rocking their bodies and rubbing their lips along the sides and floors of their tanks, which the researchers concluded were attempts to relieve pain, similar to what mammals would do.[28][29][30] Neurons fired in a pattern resembling human neuronal patterns.[30]
Professor James D. Rose of the University of Wyoming claimed the study was flawed since it did not provide proof that fish possess "conscious awareness, particularly a kind of awareness that is meaningfully like ours".[31] Rose argues that since fish brains are so different from human brains, fish are probably not conscious in the manner humans are, so that reactions similar to human reactions to pain instead have other causes. Rose had published a study a year earlier arguing that fish cannot feel pain because their brains lack a neocortex.[32] However, animal behaviorist Temple Grandin argues that fish could still have consciousness without a neocortex because "different species can use different brain structures and systems to handle the same functions."[30]
Animal welfare advocates raise concerns about the possible suffering of fish caused by angling. Some countries, such as Germany have banned specific types of fishing, and the British RSPCA now formally prosecutes individuals who are cruel to fish.[33]
Muscular system
Main article: Fish locomotion


Swim bladder of a Rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus)
Most fish move by alternately contracting paired sets of muscles on either side of the backbone. These contractions form S-shaped curves that move down the body. As each curve reaches the back fin, backward force is applied to the water, and in conjunction with the fins, moves the fish forward. The fish's fins function like an airplane's flaps. Fins also increase the tail's surface area, increasing speed. The streamlined body of the fish decreases the amount of friction from the water. Since body tissue is denser than water, fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink. Many bony fish have an internal organ called a swim bladder that adjusts their buoyancy through manipulation of gases.


A 3-tonne (3.0-long-ton; 3.3-short-ton) great white shark off Isla Guadalupe
Homeothermy
Although most fish are exclusively ectothermic, there are exceptions.
Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures. Endothermic teleosts (bony fish) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes, tunas, and one species of "primitive" mackerel (Gasterochisma melampus). All sharks in the family Lamnidae – shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark – are endothermic, and evidence suggests the trait exists in family Alopiidae (thresher sharks). The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to bluefin tuna and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 °C above ambient water temperatures. See also gigantothermy. Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased muscle strength, higher rates of central nervous system processing, and higher rates of digestion.
Reproductive system
Further information: Spawn (biology)
Organs


Organs: 1. Liver, 2. Gas bladder, 3. Roe, 4. Pyloric caeca, 5. Stomach, 6. Intestine
Fish reproductive organs include testes and ovaries. In most species, gonads are paired organs of similar size, which can be partially or totally fused.[34] There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness.
In terms of spermatogonia distribution, the structure of teleosts testes has two types: in the most common, spermatogonia occur all along the seminiferous tubules, while in Atherinomorph fish they are confined to the distal portion of these structures. Fish can present cystic or semi-cystic spermatogenesis in relation to the release phase of germ cells in cysts to the seminiferous tubules lumen.[34]
Fish ovaries may be of three types: gymnovarian, secondary gymnovarian or cystovarian. In the first type, the oocytes are released directly into the coelomic cavity and then enter the ostium, then through the oviduct and are eliminated. Secondary gymnovarian ovaries shed ova into the coelom from which they go directly into the oviduct. In the third type, the oocytes are conveyed to the exterior through the oviduct.[35] Gymnovaries are the primitive condition found in lungfish, sturgeon, and bowfin. Cystovaries characterize most teleosts, where the ovary lumen has continuity with the oviduct.[34] Secondary gymnovaries are found in salmonids and a few other teleosts.
Oogonia development in teleosts fish varies according to the group, and the determination of oogenesis dynamics allows the understanding of maturation and fertilization processes. Changes in the nucleus, ooplasm, and the surrounding layers characterize the oocyte maturation process.[34]
Postovulatory follicles are structures formed after oocyte release; they do not have endocrine function, present a wide irregular lumen, and are rapidly reabsorbed in a process involving the apoptosis of follicular cells. A degenerative process called follicular atresia reabsorbs vitellogenic oocytes not spawned. This process can also occur, but less frequently, in oocytes in other development stages.[34]
Some fish are hermaphrodites, having both testes and ovaries either at different phases in their life cycle or, as in hamlets, have them simultaneously.
Reproductive method
Over 97% of all known fish are oviparous,[36] that is, the eggs develop outside the mother's body. Examples of oviparous fish include salmon, goldfish, cichlids, tuna, and eels. In the majority of these species, fertilisation takes place outside the mother's body, with the male and female fish shedding their gametes into the surrounding water. However, a few oviparous fish practice internal fertilization, with the male using some sort of intromittent organ to deliver sperm into the genital opening of the female, most notably the oviparous sharks, such as the horn shark, and oviparous rays, such as skates. In these cases, the male is equipped with a pair of modified pelvic fins known as claspers.
Marine fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column. The eggs have an average diameter of 1 millimetre (0.039 in).

Egg of lamprey



Egg of catshark (mermaids' purse)



Egg of bullhead shark



Egg of chimaera



An example of zooplankton
The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae. They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae.
In ovoviviparous fish the eggs develop inside the mother's body after internal fertilization but receive little or no nourishment directly from the mother, depending instead on the yolk. Each embryo develops in its own egg. Familiar examples of ovoviviparous fish include guppies, angel sharks, and coelacanths.
Some species of fish are viviparous. In such species the mother retains the eggs and nourishes the embryos. Typically, viviparous fish have a structure analogous to the placenta seen in mammals connecting the mother's blood supply with that of the embryo. Examples of viviparous fish include the surf-perches, splitfins, and lemon shark. Some viviparous fish exhibit oophagy, in which the developing embryos eat other eggs produced by the mother. This has been observed primarily among sharks, such as the shortfin mako and porbeagle, but is known for a few bony fish as well, such as the halfbeak Nomorhamphus ebrardtii.[37] Intrauterine cannibalism is an even more unusual mode of vivipary, in which the largest embryos eat weaker and smaller siblings. This behavior is also most commonly found among sharks, such as the grey nurse shark, but has also been reported for Nomorhamphus ebrardtii.[37]
Aquarists commonly refer to ovoviviparous and viviparous fish as livebearers.
Immune system
Immune organs vary by type of fish.[38] In the jawless fish (lampreys and hagfish), true lymphoid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of lymphoid tissue within other organs to produce immune cells. For example, erythrocytes, macrophages and plasma cells are produced in the anterior kidney (or pronephros) and some areas of the gut (where granulocytes mature.) They resemble primitive bone marrow in hagfish. Cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) have a more advanced immune system. They have three specialized organs that are unique to chondrichthyes; the epigonal organs (lymphoid tissue similar to mammalian bone) that surround the gonads, the Leydig's organ within the walls of their esophagus, and a spiral valve in their intestine. These organs house typical immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes and plasma cells). They also possess an identifiable thymus and a well-developed spleen (their most important immune organ) where various lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored. Chondrostean fish (sturgeons, paddlefish and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the meninges (membranes surrounding the central nervous system.) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes, reticular cells and a small number of macrophages. The chondrostean kidney is an important hemopoietic organ; where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop.
Like chondrostean fish, the major immune tissues of bony fish (or teleostei) include the kidney (especially the anterior kidney), which houses many different immune cells.[39] In addition, teleost fish possess a thymus, spleen and scattered immune areas within mucosal tissues (e.g. in the skin, gills, gut and gonads). Much like the mammalian immune system, teleost erythrocytes, neutrophils and granulocytes are believed to reside in the spleen whereas lymphocytes are the major cell type found in the thymus.[40][41] In 2006, a lymphatic system similar to that in mammals was described in one species of teleost fish, the zebrafish. Although not confirmed as yet, this system presumably will be where naive (unstimulated) T cells accumulate while waiting to encounter an antigen.[42]
Diseases

Main article: Fish diseases and parasites
Like other animals, fish suffer from diseases and parasites. To prevent disease they have a variety of defenses. Non-specific defenses include the skin and scales, as well as the mucus layer secreted by the epidermis that traps and inhibits the growth of microorganisms. If pathogens breach these defenses, fish can develop an inflammatory response that increases blood flow to the infected region and delivers white blood cells that attempt to destroy pathogens. Specific defenses respond to particular pathogens recognised by the fish's body, i.e., an immune response.[43] In recent years, vaccines have become widely used in aquaculture and also with ornamental fish, for example furunculosis vaccines in farmed salmon and koi herpes virus in koi.[44][45]
Some species use cleaner fish to remove external parasites. The best known of these are the Bluestreak cleaner wrasses of the genus Labroides found on coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. These small fish maintain so-called "cleaning stations" where other fish congregate and perform specific movements to attract the attention of the cleaners.[46] Cleaning behaviors have been observed in a number of fish groups, including an interesting case between two cichlids of the same genus, Etroplus maculatus, the cleaner, and the much larger Etroplus suratensis.[47]
Evolution

See also: prehistoric fish


Outdated evolutionary view of continual gradation (animation)


Dunkleosteus was a gigantic, 10 meter (33 ft) long prehistoric fish.
Fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the "evolution of fish" is not studied as a single event.[49]
Proliferation of fish was apparently due to the hinged jaw, because jawless fish left very few descendants.[50] Lampreys may approximate pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, or a combination of factors.
Fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like Sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the larval form into adulthood (as some sea squirts do today), although perhaps the reverse is the case.
Conservation

]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11046012141.html Wed, 12 Oct 2011 20:07:54 +0900 Respiratory system 風邪は喉から？鼻から？どこからくる？ ブログネタ：風邪は喉から？鼻から？どこからくる？ 参加中
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Respiratory)
See also: Respiratory tract
Respiratory

A complete, schematic view of the human respiratory system with their parts and functions.
Latinsystema respiratorium
The respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism that introduces respiratory gases to the interior and performs gas exchange. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs.[1]
Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 Comparative anatomy and physiology
1.1 Horses
1.2 Elephants
1.3 Birds
1.4 Reptiles
1.5 Amphibians
1.6 Fish
2 Anatomy in invertebrates
2.1 Insects
2.2 Mollusks
3 Physiology in mammals
3.1 Ventilation
3.1.1 Control
3.1.2 Inhalation
3.1.3 Exhalation
3.2 Gas exchange
3.3 Non-respiratory functions
3.4 Lung Defense Mechanisms
3.5 Metabolic & Endocrine Functions of the Lungs
3.5.1 Vocalization
3.5.2 Temperature control
3.5.3 Coughing and sneezing
4 Development in People
4.1 Humans and mammals
5 Disease
6 Plants
7 References
8 External links
[edit]Comparative anatomy and physiology

[edit]Horses
Horses are obligate nasal breathers which means that they are different from many other mammals because they do not have the option of breathing through their mouths and must take in oxygen through their noses.
[edit]Elephants
The elephant is the only animal known to have no pleural space. Rather, the parietal and visceral pleura are both composed of dense connective tissue and joined to each other via loose connective tissue.[3] This lack of a pleural space, along with an unusually thick diaphragm, are thought to be evolutionary adaptations allowing the elephant to remain underwater for long periods of time while breathing through its trunk which emerges as a snorkel.[4]
[edit]Birds
The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing unique anatomical features such as air sacs. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli. See Avian respiratory system for a detailed description of these and other features.
[edit]Reptiles
The anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals, with reptiles lacking the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli however, reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus, breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of intercostal muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank muscles governs inspiration or expiration.[5]
See also reptiles for more detailed descriptions of the respiratory system in these animals.
[edit]Amphibians
Both the lungs and the skin serve as respiratory organs in amphibians. The skin of these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of mucus from specialized cells. While the lungs are of primary importance to breathing control, the skin's unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.[6]
[edit]Fish
In most fish respiration takes place through gills. (See also aquatic respiration.) Lungfish, however, do possess one or two lungs. The labyrinth fish have developed a special organ that allows them to take advantage of the oxygen of the air.
[edit]Anatomy in invertebrates

[edit]Insects
Air enters the respiratory systems of most insects through a series of external openings called spiracles. These external openings, which act as muscular valves in some insects, lead to the internal respiratory system, a densely networked array of tubes called tracheae. The scientific tracheal system within an individual is composed of interconnecting transverse and longitudinal tracheae which maintain equivalent pressure throughout the system. These tracheae branch repeatedly, eventually forming tracheoles, which are blind-ended, water-filled compartments only one micrometer in diameter.[7] It is at this level of the tracheoles that oxygen is delivered to the cells for respiration. The trachea are water-filled due to the permeable membrane of the surrounding tissues. During exercise, the water level retracts due to the increase in concentration of lactic acid in the muscle cells. This lowers the water potential and the water is drawn back into the cells via osmosis and air is brought closer to the muscle cells. The diffusion pathway is then reduced and gases can be transferred more easily.
Insects were once believed to exchange gases with the environment continuously by the simple diffusion of gases into the tracheal system. More recently, however, large variation in insect ventilatory patterns have been documented and insect respiration appears to be highly variable. Some small insects do demonstrate continuous respiration and may lack muscular control of the spiracles. Others, however, utilize muscular contraction of the abdomen along with coordinated spiracle contraction and relaxation to generate cyclical gas exchange patterns and to reduce water loss into the atmosphere. The most extreme form of these patterns is termed discontinuous gas exchange cycles (DGC).[8]
[edit]Mollusks
Mollusks generally possess gills that allow exchange of oxygen from an aqueous environment into the circulatory system. These animals also possess a heart that pumps blood which contains hemocyaninine as its oxygen-capturing molecule. Hence, this respiratory system is similar to that of vertebrate fish. The respiratory system of gastropods can include either gills or a lung.
[edit]Physiology in mammals

For more detailed descriptions see also Respiratory physiology or Respiration.
[edit]Ventilation
In respiratory physiology, ventilation (or ventilation rate) is the rate at which gas enters or leaves the lung. It is categorised under the following definitions:
MeasurementEquationDescription
Minute ventilationtidal volume * respiratory rate[1][2]the total volume of gas entering the lungs per minute.
Alveolar ventilation(tidal volume - dead space) * respiratory rate [1]the volume of gas per unit time that reaches the alveoli, the respiratory portions of the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
Dead space ventilationdead space * respiratory rate[3]the volume of gas per unit time that does not reach these respiratory portions, but instead remains in the airways (trachea, bronchi, etc.).
[edit]Control
Ventilation occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system from parts of the brain stem, the medulla oblongata and the pons. This area of the brain forms the respiration regulatory center, a series of interconnected brain cells within the lower and middle brain stem which coordinate respiratory movements. The sections are the pneumotaxic center, the apneustic center, and the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups. This section is especially sensitive during infancy, and the neurons can be destroyed if the infant is dropped and/or shaken violently. The result can be death due to "shaken baby syndrome".[9]
[edit]Inhalation
Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal muscles. Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute, with a time period of 2 seconds. During vigorous inhalation (at rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute), or in approaching respiratory failure, accessory muscles of respiration are recruited for support. These consist of sternocleidomastoid, platysma, and the scalene muscles of the neck. Pectoral muscles and latissimus dorsi are also accessory muscles.
Under normal conditions, the diaphragm is the primary driver of inhalation. When the diaphragm contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen are moved downward. This results in a larger thoracic volume and negative pressure (with respect to atmospheric pressure) inside the thorax. As the pressure in the chest falls, air moves into the conducting zone. Here, the air is filtered, warmed, and humidified as it flows to the lungs.
During forced inhalation, as when taking a deep breath, the external intercostal muscles and accessory muscles aid in further expanding the thoracic cavity. During inhalation the diaphragm contracts.
[edit]Exhalation
Exhalation is generally a passive process; however, active or forced exhalation is achieved by the abdominal and the internal intercostal muscles. During this process air is forced or exhaled out.
The lungs have a natural elasticity: as they recoil from the stretch of inhalation, air flows back out until the pressures in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium.[10]
During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles, generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.
[edit]Gas exchange
The major function of the respiratory system is gas exchange between the external environment and an organism's circulatory system. In humans and mammals, this exchange facilitates oxygenation of the blood with a concomitant removal of carbon dioxide and other gaseous metabolic wastes from the circulation. As gas exchange occurs, the acid-base balance of the body is maintained as part of homeostasis. If proper ventilation is not maintained, two opposing conditions could occur: respiratory acidosis, a life threatening condition, and respiratory alkalosis.
Upon inhalation, gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional component of the lungs. The alveolar walls are extremely thin (approx. 0.2 micrometres). These walls are composed of a single layer of epithelial cells (type I and type II epithelial cells) close to the pulmonary capillaries which are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells. The close proximity of these two cell types allows permeability to gases and, hence, gas exchange. This whole mechanism of gas exchange is carried by the simple phenomenon of pressure difference. When the atmospheric pressure is low outside, the air from lungs flow out. When the air pressure is low inside, then the vice versa.
[edit]Non-respiratory functions
[edit]Lung Defense Mechanisms
Airway epithelial cells can secrete a variety of molecules that aid in lung defense. Secretory immunoglobulins (IgA), collectins (including Surfactant A and D), defensins and other peptides and proteases, reactive oxygen species, and reactive nitrogen species are all generated by airway epithelial cells. These secretions can act directly as antimicrobials to help keep the airway free of infection. Airway epithelial cells also secrete a variety of chemokines and cytokines that recruit the traditional immune cells and others to site of infections.
[edit]Metabolic & Endocrine Functions of the Lungs
In addition to their functions in gas exchange, the lungs have a number of metabolic functions. They manufacture surfactant for local use, as noted above. They also contain a fibrinolytic system that lyses clots in the pulmonary vessels. They release a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood and they remove other substances from the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Prostaglandins are removed from the circulation, but they are also synthesized in the lungs and released into the blood when lung tissue is stretched. The lungs also activate one hormone; the physiologically inactive decapeptide angiotensin I is converted to the pressor, aldosterone-stimulating octapeptide angiotensin II in the pulmonary circulation. The reaction occurs in other tissues as well, but it is particularly prominent in the lungs. Large amounts of the angiotensin-converting enzyme responsible for this activation are located on the surface of the endothelial cells of the pulmonary capillaries. The converting enzyme also inactivates bradykinin. Circulation time through the pulmonary capillaries is less than 1 s, yet 70% of the angiotensin I reaching the lungs is converted to angiotensin II in a single trip through the capillaries. Four other peptidases have been identified on the surface of the pulmonary endothelial cells.
[edit]Vocalization
The movement of gas through the larynx, pharynx and mouth allows humans to speak, or phonate. Vocalization, or singing, in birds occurs via the syrinx, an organ located at the base of the trachea. The vibration of air flowing across the larynx (vocal chords), in humans, and the syrinx, in birds, results in sound. Because of this, gas movement is extremely vital for communication purposes.
[edit]Temperature control
Panting in dogs and some other animals provides a means of controlling body temperature. This physiological response is used as a cooling mechanism.
[edit]Coughing and sneezing
Irritation of nerves within the nasal passages or airways, can induce coughing and sneezing. These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from the trachea or nose, respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed.
[edit]Development in People

[edit]Humans and mammals
Further information: Development of human lung
The respiratory system lies dormant in the human fetus during pregnancy. At birth, the respiratory system becomes fully functional upon exposure to air, although some lung development and growth continues throughout childhood. Pre-term birth can lead to infants with under-developed lungs. These lungs show incomplete development of the alveolar type II cells, cells that produce surfactant. The lungs of pre-term infants may not function well because the lack of surfactant leads to increased surface tension within the alveoli. Thus, many alveoli collapse such that no gas exchange can occur within some or most regions of an infant's lungs, a condition termed respiratory distress syndrome. Basic scientific experiments, carried out using cells from chicken lungs, support the potential for using steroids as a means of furthering development of type II alveolar cells.[11] In fact, once a pre-mature birth is threatened, every effort is made to delay the birth, and a series of steroid shots is frequently administered to the mother during this delay in an effort to promote lung growth.[12]
[edit]Disease

Disorders of the respiratory system can be classified into four general areas:
Obstructive conditions (e.g., emphysema, bronchitis, asthma)
Restrictive conditions (e.g., fibrosis, sarcoidosis, alveolar damage, pleural effusion)
Vascular diseases (e.g., pulmonary edema, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension)
Infectious, environmental and other "diseases" (e.g., pneumonia, tuberculosis, asbestosis, particulate pollutants):
Coughing is of major importance, as it is the body's main method to remove dust, mucus, saliva, and other debris from the lungs. Inability to cough can lead to infection. Deep breathing exercises may help keep finer structures of the lungs clear from particulate matter, etc.
The respiratory tract is constantly exposed to microbes due to the extensive surface area, which is why the respiratory system includes many mechanisms to defend itself and prevent pathogens from entering the body.
Disorders of the respiratory system are usually treated internally by a pulmonologist and Respiratory Therapist.
[edit]Plants

Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale oxygen gas as waste. The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO2 (carbon dioxide) and 6 H2O (water) and that makes 6 O2 (oxygen) and C6H12O6 (glucose). Respiration is the opposite of that. However, plants also sometimes respire as humans do, taking in oxygen and producing carbon dioxide.
Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon dioxide through holes on the undersides of their leaves known as stoma or pores. However, most plants require little air.[citation needed] Most plants have relatively few living cells outside of their surface because air (which is required for metabolic content) can penetrate only skin deep. However, most plants are not involved in highly aerobic activities, and thus have no need of these living cells.
[edit]References

^ Haton, Anthea; Jean, Hopkins Susan, Johnson Charles William, McLaughlin Maryanna Quon Warner David, LaHart Wright, Jill D. (2009). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs,: Prentice Hall. pp. 108–118. ISBN 0-12-981176-1.
^ West, John B.. Respiratory physiology-- the essentials. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1–10. ISBN 0-683-08937-4.
^ West, John B.; Ravichandran (1993). "Snorkel breathing in the elephant explains the unique anatomy of its pleura". Respiration Physiology 126 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/S0034-5687(01)00203-1. PMID 11311306.
^ West, John B. (2002). "Why doesn't the elephant have a pleural space?". News Physiol Sci 17: 47–50. PMID 11909991.
^ Britannica On-line Encyclopedia
^ Gottlieb, G; Jackson DC (1976). "Importance of pulmonary ventilation in respiratory control in the bullfrog". Am J Physiol 230 (3): 608–13. PMID 4976.
^ Introduction to Insect Anatomy
^ Lighton, JRB (January 1996). "Discontinuous gas exchange in insects". Annu Rev Entomology 41: 309–324.
^ *Fact sheet on Shaken Baby Syndrome
^ A simple model of how the lungs are inflated can be built from a bell jar
^ Department of Environmental Biology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia
^ Pregnancy-facts.com ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11046005233.html Wed, 12 Oct 2011 20:03:39 +0900 Future City 将来住みたい街 ブログネタ：将来住みたい街 参加中
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may be written like an advertisement. If so, please help rewrite this article from a neutral point of view. (October 2010)
Future City Competition is a national competition in the United States that focuses on improving student's math, engineering, and science skills. The program is open to all students in the 6th, 7th, and 8th grades who attend a public, private or home school.
The National Engineers Week Future City Competition (www.futurecity.org) is an example of problem based learning with computer simulation. It is an integrated, multidisciplinary, holistic approach to relevant issues and is a strong example of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, & Mathematics) education that addresses national and state academic content standards. The program asks 7th and 8th grade students from around the nation to team with engineer-volunteer mentors to create — first on computer and then in large, three-dimensional models — their visions of the city of tomorrow. The Future City Competition, organized under the National Engineers Week Foundation, has been operating under the National Engineers Week Future City Competition charter since 1992.
To truly affect the ways students and general public perceive engineering it is important for engineers to use the right messages. Too often engineers focus their messages to young students on the process of becoming an engineer and overlook messages on the value of an engineering career. The National Engineers Week Foundation has been engaged with two projects specifically to research and develop messages around messages to convey that engineering is a helping profession. These messages also convey the value of teamwork and creativity. Learn more from ‘Engineer Your Life’ and ‘Changing the Conversation’ at www.eweek.org.
Mission Statement:
The mission of the National Engineers Week Future City Competition is to provide a fun and exciting educational engineering program for seventh- and eighth-grade students that combines a stimulating engineering challenge with an inquiry-based application to present their vision of a city of the future.
BENEFITS OF THE NATIONAL ENGINEERS WEEK FUTURE CITY COMPETITION:
The program offers students a fun way to learn about engineering and cities of the future while at the same time developing academic skills. The program is in keeping with the 21st Century Skills as described in Chapter 3
The National Engineers Week Future City Competition provides a platform for students to increase their:
• Logical thinking skills,
• Problem-solving skills,
• Ability to work in teams,
• Research and technical writing
• Oral presentation skills,
• Application of coursework to practical problems,
• Technological skills, and
• An awareness of community and business issues on the local and global levels.
National Academic Content Standards
The Future City Competition components are strongly correlated to the National Academic Standards, particularly those connected to STEM education
State Academic Content Standards
It should also be noted that State Academic Standards are based on the National Academic Standards.
It contains two levels: regional competitions and the National Finals for the winners of these previous contests. The goal is to design a futuristic city and discussing its important elements of a city: urban planning, zoning, transportation, energy, economy, environment, and education. Team members represent their ideas and proposals in several ways:
Essay about the yearly theme (for example, the theme of the 2010–2011 Competition is "Providing a reliable and effective health care product that effectively improves the quality of life and comfort for a patient who is either a senior citizen or has a specific disease, or is suffering from an illness, injury or physical disability").
A City Narrative discussing their city's services and ideas.
A Physical Model to show a physical representation of their city.
Computer Design using Sim City 4 software.
Presentation to describe their city to the judges on the day of the competition.
Registration for the competition begins in May and ends on October 15, 2010.
Contents [hide]
1 Winners of the 2006–2007
2 Winners of the 2007–2008
3 Winners of the 2008–2009
4 Winners of the 2009–2010
5 External links
[edit]Winners of the 2006–2007

1st Place: St. Thomas More School - Louisiana
2nd Place: Nevada Christian Home School - Nevada (Northern)
3rd Place: Helen Keller Middle School - Michigan
[edit]Winners of the 2007–2008

1st Place: Heritage Middle School - Westerville, Ohio
2nd Place: Farnsworth Middle School - New York Albany
3rd Place: Our Lady Help of Christians School - Philadelphia
[edit]Winners of the 2008–2009

1st Place: Bexley Middle School - Ohio
2nd Place: St. Thomas More - Louisiana
3rd Place: St. Thomas the Apostle - Florida (South)
[edit]Winners of the 2009–2010

1st Place: Davidson IB Middle School - North Carolina
2nd Place: Valley Middle School - New Jersey
3rd Place: Northern Nevada Home School - Nevada (Northern) ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11046002967.html Wed, 12 Oct 2011 20:01:40 +0900 Fashion show 【アメーバピグ】ロマンティックなデート服ファッションコンテスト ブログネタ：【アメーバピグ】ロマンティックなデート服ファッションコンテスト 参加中
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For other uses, see Fashion show (disambiguation).


Nataliya Gotsiy modeling for Cynthia Rowley, Spring 2007 New York Fashion Week


Models wearing Slava Zaitsev fashions in Moscow, January 2007.


Men's fashions for 1948, shown in Los Angeles
A fashion show is an event put on by a fashion designer to showcase his or her upcoming line of clothing during Fashion Week. Fashion shows debut every season, particularly the Spring/Summer and Fall/Winter seasons. This is where the latest fashion trends are made. The most influential fashion week is Paris fashion week, which showcases twice a year.
In a typical fashion show, models walk the catwalk dressed in the clothing created by the designer. Occasionally, fashion shows take the form of installations, where the models are static, standing or sitting in a constructed environment. The order in which each model walks out wearing a specific outfit is usually planned in accordance to the statement that the designer wants to make about his or her collection. It is then up to the audience to not only try to understand what the designer is trying to say by the way the collection is being presented, but to also visually deconstruct each outfit and try to appreciate the detail and craftsmanship of every single piece. A wide range of contemporary designers tend to produce their shows as theatrical productions with elaborate sets and added elements such as live music or a variety of technological components like holograms, for example.

Contents [hide]
1 Target content
2 History
3 See also
4 References
[edit]Target content



fashion show catwalk pure london
[edit]History

Because "the topic of fashion shows remains to find its historian",[1] the earliest history of fashion shows remains obscure.
In the 1800s, "fashion parades" periodically took place in Paris couture salons.[2]
American retailers imported the concept of the fashion show in the early 1900s.[2] The first American fashion show likely took place in 1903 in the New York City store Ehrlich Brothers.[2] By 1910, large department stores such as Wanamaker's in New York City and Philadelphia were also staging fashion shows.[2] These events showed couture gowns from Paris or the store's copies of them; they aimed to demonstrate the owners' good taste and capture the attention of female shoppers.[2]
By the 1920s, retailers across the United States held fashion shows.[2] Often, these shows were theatrical, presented with narratives, and organized around a theme (e.g. Parisian, Chinese, or Russian).[2] These shows enjoyed huge popularity through mid-century, sometimes attracting thousands of customers and gawkers.[2]
In the 1970s and 1980s, American designers began to hold their own fashion shows in private spaces apart from such retailers.[2] In the early 1990s, however, many in the fashion world began to rethink this strategy.[2] After several mishaps during shows in small, unsafe locations, "[t]he general sentiment was, 'We love fashion but we don't want to die for it,'" recalls Fern Mallis, then executive director of the Council of Fashion Designers of America.[2] In response to these shows, the New York shows were centralized in Bryant Park during fashion week in late 1993.[2] Lately from the 2000 to today, fashion shows are usually also filmed and appear on specially assigned television channels or even in documentaries. [3]
[edit]See also

Fashion
Fashion week
[edit]References

^ Valerie Steele, chief curator and director of the Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology, quoted in Fortini, Amanda. How the Runway Took Off: A Brief History of the Fashion Show. Slate Magazine (Feb. 8, 2006).
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fortini, Amanda. How the Runway Took Off: A Brief History of the Fashion Show. Slate Magazine (Feb. 8, 2006).
^ Bible Black, a documentary on a fashion show held by Andrew Mackenzie Urban.dk, 13.11.2008, artikel-id: e14a0053 (Nov. 11, 2008). ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11038277249.html Tue, 04 Oct 2011 22:36:47 +0900 MC jin 好きなCM ブログネタ：好きなCM 参加中
本文はここから





his is a Chinese name; the family name is 歐陽 (Ouyang).
Jin Au-Yeung (traditional Chinese: 歐陽靖; simplified Chinese: 欧阳靖; pinyin: Ōuyáng Jìng; Cantonese Yale: Āuyèuhng Jihng; born June 4, 1982), who performs under the stage name MC Jin(earlier, 100 Grand Jin and Jin the Emcee or even just The Emcee), is a Hong Kong hip hop[5][6][7] rapper, songwriter, and actor.[2][3] Growing up in the Miami, Florida area, and later living in New York City, he decided to reside permanently in his motherland, Hong Kong.[2][3] Because of his multicultural background, he is fluent in both Cantonese and English. Back in the United States, he was both the first East Asian and Chinese solo rapper to be signed to a major record label.[8][9]
Contents [hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early life
1.2 2001: Freestyle Friday
1.3 2002–2005: Ruff Ryders Era
1.4 2005–2008: After Ruff Ryders
1.5 2008-present: Catch Adventures
2 Other activities
3 AIYA!
4 Discography
4.1 Studio albums
4.2 Cooperative Albums
4.3 Songs in
4.4 Mixtapes
4.5 EPs
5 Music Videos
6 Filmography
7 Further reading
8 References
9 External links
[edit]Biography


This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009)
[edit]Early life
Jin Au-Yeung was born on June 4, 1982, in Miami, Florida, to Hong Kong Chinese immigrants.[10] He was raised in North Miami Beach, where his parents owned a strip-mall Chinese restaurant, and where Jin attended schools. He graduated from John F. Kennedy Middle School and North Miami Beach Senior High School.[11]
[edit]2001: Freestyle Friday
After graduating from high school in 2000, Jin decided to forgo college[12] and moved his family to Flushing, Queens, New York City in 2001. He began performing freestyles and selling his own mix tapes on the streets, in hip-hop clubs and wherever else possible. While battling on the streets he was spotted by Kamel Pratt who then became his manager and they formed Crafty Plugz Entertainment. His big break came when the BET program 106 & Park began inviting local rappers to hold battles in a segment known as Freestyle Friday. He won seven battles in a row, enabling him to be inducted in the Freestyle Friday Hall of Fame.
[edit]2002–2005: Ruff Ryders Era
That same night of his Hall of Fame induction, he announced that he had signed a deal with the Ruff Ryders. His first single under Ruff Ryders was titled "Learn Chinese". It took a sample from the 1992 song "They Want EFX", from hip-hop group Das EFX. The second and final single for the album was originally supposed to be "I Got a Love" featuring Kanye West, but was later changed to "Senorita" because Roc-A-Fella Records did not want to over-expose Kanye West. The album was originally scheduled to be released in the summer of 2003, but was delayed for over a year by the label. In October 2004, Jin released his debut album, The Rest Is History, which reached number 54 of the Billboard Top 200 albums chart.[13] Both of his singles, "Learn Chinese" and "Senorita", failed to be major mainstream successes. Nonetheless, Jin's music video "Learn Chinese" was the first video ever to be played on MTV Chi.
In 2003, Jin made an appearance in the movie 2 Fast 2 Furious as a mechanic named 'Jimmy'. His song "Peel Off" was featured on the 2 Fast 2 Furious soundtrack. He also collaborated with British Indian Bhangra artist, Juggy D, in the song "Kohl Aaja (Come Closer)", when he was in London doing some promotion for The Rest Is History.
[edit]2005–2008: After Ruff Ryders
On April 23, 2005, Jin and rapper "Serius Jones" engaged in a rap battle. The battle was featured on Fight Klub DVD[14]
On May 18, 2005, Jin revealed that he would be putting his rap career on hold in order to explore other options. To make this clear, he recorded a song titled "I Quit", which was produced by the Golden Child. The announcement was widely misunderstood to have marked the end of Jin's rap career. However, he later re-emerged under a different alias, The Emcee, and freestyled over such songs as Jay-Z's "Dear Summer." He released a single called "Top 5 (Dead or Alive)" where Jin displays his lyrical talent in explaining the history of hip-hop's greatest artists. The legendary DJ Kool Herc, who is credited as the founder of hip-hop, appears in Jin's music video. After signing with an independent label, CraftyPlugz/Draft Records, Jin released his second album, The Emcee's Properganda on October 25, 2005. Jin was also featured on the Taipei-based pop artist Leehom Wang's 2005 album Heroes of Earth.
Jin and Leehom performed their “Heroes of the Earth” collaboration live in Shanghai on February 16, 2006 at an event arranged by Chinese A&R exec Andrew Ballen. Ballen was also the first promoter to bring Jin to mainland China in 2003 for his “The Rest is History” tour.[15]
Jin released two albums in 2006. The first one, 100 Grand Jin is a mixtape/album that was released on August 29, 2006. The single released off the album is "FYI", for which the rapper shot and released a music video. The second album released in 2006 is Jin's third LP, I Promise.
On Jin's MySpace, Jin mentioned that he is working on another English album named "Birthdays, Funerals and Things In Between". Jin premiered a song called "Open Letter to Obama" on April 24, 2007, which made him become 1st on Barack Obama's Top 8 list on MySpace.[16]
On April 16, 2007, Jin made a tribute song to the victims of the Virginia Tech massacre called "Rain, Rain Go Away".[17] Recently Jin has decided to make his November 1, 2006 Internet album put together by Roy P. Perez© and his team of producers at Romeo Ent., I Promise, available in retail stores. It will be out on October 23, 2007.[18]
Jin released a new song through his MySpace page. The song is titled "Fill In The Blanks", and Jin encourages his fans to record their own verse into the song.[19]
[edit]2008-present: Catch Adventures
Jin has done a collaboration with an Malaysian MC Point Blanc track titled "One Day".[20] The Music Video can be viewed on YouTube.
He has recently released a demo song called Worst Enemy which has garnered over 130,000 views on his Myspace.[21] He also put the song Welcome To The Light Club on his Myspace page.[22] Jin is a Christian, stating in his song "Welcome to the Light Club" he was baptized in 2008.[23] He has featured in Far East Movement's "Millionaire". He has done a track over a DJ Premier joint titled "World Premier". He is also collaborate with producer Trendsetter aka Mark Holiday.[24]
He has his own youtube channel which he uploads 3 minute video blogs about his life. Http://www.youtube.com/ayojintv
Jin currently resides in Hong Kong. He stars frequently in commercials there, and making numerous appearances on TVB like Big Boys Club.
He has recently thrown out a Hip-Hop Census in honor of the 2010 Census and Chinese New Year 2010. He released a mixtape entitled "Say Something", on May 15, 2010. As said by Jin, this mixtape is open to anybody and will be mixed from the general population along with Jin. According to JinSuperGroup.com, Jin will be releasing a new album with his friend Hanjin in 2010.
On July 10, 2010, Jin collaborated with Mandarin singer Hanjin Tan (Chinese: 陳奐仁) to release another Cantonese album 買一送一
Jin also released a music video for his English single "Angels".
In December 2010, Jin joined forces with Hong Kong Chief Executive Donald Tsang to release a Christmas music video entitled "Rap Now 2010", which he performed for free. The video featured a number of lines ending with "Act Now!" (起錨), echoing a Hong Kong government slogan.[25] A CNN report described the video as an "official eyesore" and "a politica message thinly veiled as a Christmas card", and further criticised Jin's rapping as resembling "awkward nursery rhymes", in contrast to his earlier performances.[26] However, local newspaper The Standard, in response to critics, stated in an editorial that "Tsang, like the millions who post videos of themselves or their loved ones, only wants to have fun."[27]
On March 7, 2011, Jin released a music video for a song from his upcoming English album entitled "Charlie Sheen," collaborating with artists Dumbfoundead and Traphik/Timothy DeLaGhetto. Jin recently released an ep titled "Sincerely Yours".
Jin released his new single called "Shoot For The Moon" on June 4, 2011. His birthday was on the same day. He also plans to release the full English album later in November.
Jin is managed by talent manager Carl Choi.
On February 12, 2011, MC Jin and his Chinese American wife, Carol, got married on the small island of Puerto Rico.[28] ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11038275619.html Tue, 04 Oct 2011 22:35:31 +0900 Johnny English ジャニーズで一番好きなグループ ブログネタ：ジャニーズで一番好きなグループ 参加中
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For other people named John English, see John English (disambiguation).
Johnny English

Theatrical release poster
Directed byPeter Howitt
Produced byTim Bevan
Eric Fellner
Mark Huffam
Written byNeal Purvis
Robert Wade
William Davies
StarringRowan Atkinson
Ben Miller
John Malkovich
Natalie Imbruglia
Music byEdward Shearmur
CinematographyRemi Adefarasin
Editing byRobin Sales
StudioStudioCanal
Working Title Films
Distributed byUniversal Pictures
Release date(s)11 April 2003
Running time89 minutes
CountryUnited Kingdom
LanguageEnglish
Budget$40 million[1]
Box office$160,583,018[1]
Johnny English is a 2003 British action comedy film parodying the James Bond secret agent genre. The film stars Rowan Atkinson (who, two decades earlier, appeared in an unofficial James Bond film - Never Say Never Again) as the incompetent titular English spy, with John Malkovich, Natalie Imbruglia, Tim Pigott-Smith and Ben Miller in supporting roles. The screenplay was written by Bond writers Neal Purvis and Robert Wade, with William Davies, and the film was directed by Peter Howitt. The film grossed a total of $160 million worldwide.[1]
A sequel, Johnny English Reborn, will be released on October 28, 2011 in the USA and in Hong Kong, and on October 7th in the United Kingdom. It was first released simultaneously in Australia, Hungary, Malaysia, the Philippines, Serbia, Singapore, Slovenia, Thailand and Ukraine on 15 September 2011[2]
Contents [hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming locations
4 Reception
5 Soundtrack
6 Sequel
7 References
8 External links
[edit]Plot

The film opens with a fantasy sequence in which Johnny English (Rowan Atkinson), an inept British Intelligence agent, is "Agent One". He sneaks into a building, distracts two guard dogs with toys, knocks out two guards and seduces a woman who threatens him. He is awoken from his fantasy just as he is about to kiss the woman by the real Agent One (Greg Wise), for whom English is preparing mission documents. After being assured that English has checked the submarine hatch codes personally, Agent One leaves on a mission. The audience then learn that Agent One died in action when his submarine hatch "failed to open". A bomb then wipes out Britain's remaining agents, all of whom were attending the funeral of Agent One, leaving only English. Nobody notices the hearse, which sped from the scene minutes earlier.
Before his death, Agent One was investigating a plot to steal the Crown Jewels. Together with his (far more capable) assistant Angus Bough (Ben Miller), English takes over the case. Whilst investigating, English becomes attracted to a mysterious woman, Lorna Campbell (Natalie Imbruglia), whom he meets at the unveiling of the newly restored Crown Jewels, the security of which English is in charge of. The power to the room is cut, and English knocks out the chief of security, before pretending to fight a criminal (later described by English as having orange frizzy hair, two teeth, two "banana shaped" scars, a broken nose and an eye patch) in another room in an attempt to cover this fact up. Later, Bough and English follow a tunnel and find the Jewels, but fail to stop the thieves after English accidentaly ejects his pistols magazine. English chases their car, a hearse, but accidentally trails the wrong one. Convinced the burial party he discovers is an act, he arrests the mourners and Priest before realising his mistake. Bough rescues him by pretending that English was an escaped asylum inmate.
The pair then uncovers the mastermind of the theft, French prison entrepreneur and descendant of William the Conqueror, Pascal Sauvage (John Malkovich). English reports his suspicions to the head of MI7, Pegasus (Tim Pigott-Smith), who doesn't believe him. In the carpark, one of Sauvage's henchmen attacks English and Bough, and escapes when English mistakingly attacks Bough. English and Bough infiltrate Sauvage's headquarters via parachute, but English lands on the wrong building, abseiling the identical London Hospital. He holds several staff and patients at gunpoint, before realising his mistake.
English activates a DVD player, exposing Sauvage's plan to instate himself as King, using an impostor Archbishop of Canterbury (Oliver Ford Davies). After accidentally injecting himself with muscle relaxant, he meets Lorna again. She turns out to be an Interpol agent, also on Sauvage's tail. Along with Bough, they gatecrash a party held by Sauvage. The muscle relaxant not yet worn off, English accidentally insults the Foreign Secretary (Jenny Galloway). One of the henchmen reports English to Sauvage, a friend of English's unwitting boss, the latter of whom dismisses Bough and English. Sauvage decides that English knows too much and sends henchmen to force the Queen to sign a letter of abdication. Sauvage is informed by British officials that, as the closest surviving relative of the Queen, the position of monarch now belongs to him.
Lorna visits English at his flat, as his mission was reassigned to her. and persuades English to join her. They travel to France, infiltrate Sauvage's chateau, and overhear his proposal to turn the United Kingdom into a giant prison. In an attempt to steal an incriminating DVD, English drops it onto a tray full of identical disks, and takes the wrong one. However, English accidentally triggers a microphone, alerting Sauvage, and guards seize them. Held hostage, they are freed by Bough and return to England on the day of the coronation.
At Sauvage's coronation, English sneaks in with Lorna, the former disguised as the English bishop in front of Sauvage. He publicly accuses Sauvage of treason, and unaware that the fake Archbishop is no longer being used, English attempts to pull off his face, believing it to be a mask. English then radios to Bough to tell him to play the DVD they retrieved. Bough does so, resulting in three-quarters of the world's population watching English, in a shower cap and underpants, dancing and miming along to "Does Your Mother Know" by ABBA. English escapes, but comes back , swinging from a wire above Sauvage and the Archbishop, grabbing the crown before it touches Sauvage's head. Sauvage pulls a gun, and in the following struggle, English is inadvertently crowned. He places Sauvage under arrest and allows the Queen to return to the throne, in return for a knighthood.
The film ends with English driving Lorna to the top of a mountain where Johnny accidentally presses the eject button whilst about to kiss her, and Lorna shoots into the sky. There is also a short scene in the credits showing Lorna landing into a swimming pool as the orange haired criminal described earlier by English lowers his newspaper.
]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11038274150.html Tue, 04 Oct 2011 22:34:17 +0900 cell 携帯、スマホで1番よく使う機能は？　 ブログネタ：携帯、スマホで1番よく使う機能は？　 参加中
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Two in court over Frankland Prison murder

Mitchell Harrison was found dead in his prison cell
Two inmates charged with the murder of a convicted child rapist at County Durham's high security Frankland Prison have appeared in court.

Michael Parr, 32, and Nathan Mann, 23, were arrested after the body of Mitchell Harrison was found in a cell at the prison on Saturday.

Harrison, 23, was jailed for raping a 13-year-old girl in Cumbria in 2010.

Neither accused entered a plea and the case was referred to Newcastle Crown Court to be heard on Wednesday.

A post-mortem examination revealed Harrison died from multiple injuries, although police have declined to go into detail about the circumstances of the attack.

Harrison, originally from Wolverhampton, was serving an indeterminate sentence of at least four-and-a-half years after being convicted at Carlisle Crown Court in January last year.

He was also put on the sex offenders register for life after the attack on the teenager at a property in Kendal, Cumbria, in 2009.

Frankland Prison is a Category A jail and houses more than 800 inmates, including some of the most serious offenders in the prison system. ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11037366295.html Mon, 03 Oct 2011 22:20:58 +0900 The price of Japanese reconstruction 復興支援という言葉は容易に使わないほうがいい？ ブログネタ：復興支援という言葉は容易に使わないほうがいい？ 参加中
本文はここから





More than £400bn has now been wiped off the stock market value of Japan's bigger companies since the quake and tsunami hit on Friday.


On one measure, Japanese shares have fall more over two days than since the crash of October 1987.

Shares in some of the country's biggest and best known international companies - such as Toyota, Sony and Panasonic - plunged again. The price of the country's mega banks also dropped sharply.

The contagion spread to the price of Japanese government bonds, which fell - rather than benefiting, which is what often happens, from a shift by investors out of assets, such as shares, perceived to be riskier.

Because of the sheer size of the Japanese national debt (more than 200% of GDP and rising) and the magnitude of the government's deficit (see my post of yesterday for more on this), fears are increasing about the cost of any programme to rebuild the devastated areas and national infrastructure - and what impact that will have on the health of the nation's finances.

The risk that a wide area around the Fukushima nuclear plant may have been contaminated is now weighing heavily on markets.

Although Japan's central bank yesterday doubled the size of its programme to buy financial assets, including government bonds, to $121bn or £76bn, that programme remains a fraction of what the US Federal Reserve has been deploying to stimulate domestic economic activity - so some are saying the Bank of Japan is not doing enough to bolster investors' confidence.

On the basis of the cost of insuring state debt, the credit of the government of the world's third biggest economy and second biggest exporter is now perceived to be as risky as that of nations on the fringes of Europe such as Estonia and the Czech Republic, according to Bloomberg, which cites data from CMA.

So what will be the impact of all this on the rest of the world? Although the Japanese economy and markets are vast, its almost 20 years in the doldrums after 1990 did not prevent something of an economic golden age elsewhere (at least till 2007).

But this time it may be different. Growth in the developed economies of the West remains fragile. The global financial system is not fully restored to health.

There cannot be total insulation elsewhere from the sheer size of the market movements in Japan. At the very least share prices in Europe are likely to weaken and assets traditional seen as safe - gold and US government bonds - will probably rise.

As for oil, if the perception grows that Japanese manufacturing activity will remain depressed for a while, its price will weaken - although the instability in the Gulf continues to exert upward pressure on the oil price. And to state the bloomin' obvious, shares in those businesses with a huge stake in expanding nuclear generation, such as the UK's Centrica and France's Areva and EDF, will remain under pressure.

What remains shrouded in fog is whether the combination of the Japanese debacle, with the momentous and uncertain events in the Middle East, will derail a worldwide economic recovery which is neither entrenched nor particularly robust. ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11037363411.html Mon, 03 Oct 2011 22:19:02 +0900 japanese men-rui 和食で1番好きなおかず ブログネタ：和食で1番好きなおかず 参加中
本文はここから





Noodles (men-rui, 麺類)
Noodles often take the place of rice in a meal. However, the Japanese appetite for rice is so strong that many restaurants even serve noodles-rice combination sets.


Kamo nanban: Soba with sliced duck breast, negi (scallions) and mitsuba
Traditional Japanese noodles are usually served chilled with a dipping sauce, or in a hot soy-dashi broth.
Soba: thin brown buckwheat noodles. Also known as Nihon-soba ("Japanese soba"). In Okinawa, soba likely refers to Okinawa soba (see below).
Udon: thick white wheat noodles served with various toppings, usually in a hot soy-dashi broth, or sometimes in a Japanese curry soup.
Somen: thin white wheat noodles served chilled with a dipping sauce. Hot Somen is called Nyumen.
Chinese-influenced noodles are served in a meat or chicken broth and have only appeared in the last 100 years or so.
Ramen: thin light yellow noodles served in hot chicken or pork broth with various toppings; of Chinese origin, it is a popular and common item in Japan. Also known as Shina-soba (支那そば) or Chuka-soba (中華そば) (both mean "Chinese-style soba")
Champon: yellow noodles of medium thickness served with a great variety of seafood and vegetable toppings in a hot chicken broth which originated in Nagasaki as a cheap food for students
Hiyashi chuka: thin, yellow noodles served cold with a variety of toppings, such as cucumber, tomato, ham or chicken, bean sprouts, thin-sliced omelet, etc., and a cold sauce (soy sauce based, sesame based, etc.). The name means "cold Chinese noodles."
Okinawa soba: thick wheat-flour noodles served in Okinawa, often served in a hot broth with sōki, steamed pork. Akin to a cross between udon and ramen.
Zaru soba: Soba noodles served cold
Yaki soba: Fried Chinese noodles
Yaki udon: Fried udon noodles
[edit]Bread (pan, パン)
Bread (the word "pan" is derived from the Portuguese pão)[1] is not native to Japan and is not considered traditional Japanese food, but since its introduction in the 16th century it has become common.
Curry bread (karē pan カレーパン): deep fried bread filled with Japanese curry sauce.
Anpan (ampan アンパン): sweet bun filled with red bean (anko) paste.
Yakisoba-pan: bread roll sandwich with yakisoba (fried noodles and red pickled ginger) filling.
Korokke-pan: bread roll sandwich with croquette (deep-fried patties mashed potato) filling.
Melon-pan: sweet round bun covered in a (sometimes melon flavored) cookie-like coating, scored in criss cross shape and baked.
Katsu-sando: sandwich with tonkatsu (breaded pork cutlet) filling.
[edit]Common Japanese main and side dishes (okazu, おかず)

[edit]Deep-fried dishes (agemono, 揚げ物)


Ebi tempura.
Karaage 唐揚げ: bite-sized pieces of chicken, fish, octopus, or other meat, floured and deep fried. Common izakaya food, also often available in convenience stores.
Korokke (croquette　コロッケ): breaded and deep-fried patties, containing either mashed potato or white sauce mixed with minced meat, vegetables or seafood. Popular everyday food.
Kushikatsu 串カツ: skewered meat, vegetables or seafood, breaded and deep fried.
Tempura: deep-fried vegetables or seafood in a light, distinctive batter.
Tonkatsu 豚カツ: deep-fried breaded cutlet of pork (chicken versions are called chicken katsu).
[edit]Grilled and pan-fried dishes (yakimono, 焼き物)


Yakitori being cooked
Gyoza 餃子: Chinese ravioli-dumplings (potstickers), usually filled with pork and vegetables and pan-fried.
Kushiyaki 串焼き: skewers of meat and vegetables.
Motoyaki: Baked seafood topped with a creamy sauce.
Okonomiyaki (お好み焼き): savory pancakes with various meat and vegetable ingredients, flavoured with the likes of Worcestershire sauce or mayonnaise.
Takoyaki (たこ焼き,蛸焼き): a spherical, fried dumpling of batter with a piece of octopus inside. Popular street snack.
Teriyaki (照り焼き): grilled, broiled, or pan-fried meat, fish, chicken or vegetables glazed with a sweetened soy sauce.
Unagi (鰻,うなぎ), including Kabayaki蒲焼: grilled and flavored eel.
Yakiniku ("grilled meat" 焼肉): may refer to several things. Vegetables such as bite-sized onion, carrot, cabbage, mushrooms, and bell pepper are usually grilled together. Grilled ingredients are dipped in a sauce known as tare before being eaten.
Horumonyakiホルモン焼き ("offal-grill"): similar homegrown dish, but using offal
Jingisukan (Genghis Khan ジンギスカン) barbecue: sliced lamb or mutton grilled with various vegetables, especially onion and cabbage and dipped in a rich tare sauce. A speciality of Hokkaidō.
Yakitori 焼き鳥: barbecued chicken skewers, usually served with beer. In Japan, yakitori usually consists of a wide variety of parts of the chicken. It is not usual to see straight chicken meat as the only type of yakitori in a meal.
Yakizakana 焼き魚 : flame-grilled fish, often served with grated daikon. One of the most common dishes served at home. Because of the simple cuisine, fresh fish in season are highly preferable. See Arabesque greenling
[edit]Nabemono (one pot "steamboat" cooking, 鍋物)
Nabemono includes:
Oden おでん,関東炊き"kantou-daki": surimi, boiled eggs, daikon radish, konnyaku, and fish cakes stewed in a light, soy-flavoured dashi broth. Common wintertime food and often available in convenience stores.
Motsunabe モツ鍋: beef offal, Chinese cabbage and various vegetables cooked in a light soup base.
Shabu-shabu しゃぶしゃぶ: hot pot with thinly sliced beef, vegetables, and tofu, cooked in a thin stock at the table and dipped in a soy or sesame-based dip before eating.
Sukiyaki すき焼き: thinly sliced beef and vegetables cooked in a mixture of soy sauce, dashi, sugar, and sake. Participants cook at the table then dip food into their individual bowls of raw egg before eating it.
Tecchiri: hot pot with blowfish and vegetables, a specialty of Osaka.
[edit]Nimono (stewed dishes, 煮物)
Kakuni 角煮: chunks of pork belly stewed in soy, mirin and sake with large pieces of daikon and whole boiled eggs. The Okinawan variation, using awamori, soy sauce and miso, is known as rafuti.
Nikujaga 肉じゃが: beef and potato stew, flavoured with sweet soy
Nizakana 煮魚: fish poached in sweet soy (often on the menu as "nitsuke")
Sōki: Okinawan dish of pork stewed with bone
[edit]Itamemono (stir-fried dishes, 炒め物)
Stir-frying is not a native method of cooking in Japan, however mock-Chinese stir fries such as yasai itame (stir fried vegetables) have been a staple in homes and canteens across Japan since the 1950s. Home grown stir fries include:
Chanpurū: A stir-fry from Okinawa, of vegetables, tofu, meat or seafood and sometimes egg. Many varieties, the most famous being gōyā chanpurū.
Kinpira gobo: Thin sticks of greater burdock (gobo, ゴボウ) and other root vegetables stir-fried and braised in sweetened soy.
[edit]Sashimi


Bonito(skipjack tuna) tataki.
Sashimi (刺身) is raw, thinly sliced foods served with a dipping sauce and simple garnishes; usually fish or shellfish served with soy sauce and wasabi. Less common variations include:
Fugu (河豚): sliced poisonous pufferfish (sometimes lethal), a uniquely Japanese specialty. The chef responsible for preparing it must be licensed.
Ikizukuri: live sashimi
Tataki (ja:たたき): raw/very rare skipjack tuna or beef steak seared on the outside and sliced, or a finely chopped fish, spiced with the likes of chopped spring onions, ginger or garlic paste.
Basashi (ja:馬刺し): horse meat sashimi, sometimes called sakura (桜), is a regional speciality in certain areas such as Shinshu (Nagano, Gifu and Toyama prefectures) and Kumamoto.[2] Basashi features on the menu of many izakayas, even on the menus of big national chains.
Torisashi: chicken breast sashimi, regional specialty of Kagoshima, Miyazaki prefectures.
Rebasashi: usually liver of calf, completely raw (rare version is called "aburi" (あぶり)), usually dipped in salted sesame oil rather than soy sauce.
Shikasashi: deer meat sashimi, a rare delicacy in certain parts of Japan, frequently causes acute hepatitis E by eating hunted wild deer.[3]
[edit]Soups (suimono (吸い物) and shirumono (汁物))
Soups include:
Miso soup (味噌汁): soup made with miso dissolved in dashi, usually containing two or three types of solid ingredients, such as seaweed, vegetables or tofu.
Tonjiru (豚汁): similar to Miso soup, except that pork is added to the ingredients
Dangojiru (団子汁): soup made with dumplings along with seaweed, tofu, lotus root, or any number of other vegetables and roots
Imoni(芋煮): a thick taro potato stew popular in Northern Japan during the autumn season
Sumashijiru (澄まし汁) or osumashi (お澄まし): a clear soup made with dashi and seafood or chicken.
Zoni (雑煮): soup containing mochi rice cakes along with various vegetables and often chicken. It is usually eaten at New Years Day.
Kiritanpo: freshly cooked rice is pounded, formed into cylinders around cryptomeria skewers, and toasted at an open hearth. The kiritanpo are used as dumplings in soups.
[edit]Pickled or salted foods (tsukemono 漬け物 (pickled or fragrant things)


A stall selling a variety of pickled and cured foods including squid, cabbage and daikon at a Tokyo supermarket.
These foods are usually served in tiny portions, as a side dish to be eaten with white rice, to accompany sake or as a topping for rice porridges.
Ikura: salt cured and　pickled　soy sauce salmon caviar.
Mentaiko (明太子): salt-cured and red pepper pickled pollock roe.
Shiokara (塩辛): salty fermented viscera.
Tsukemono(漬物): pickled vegetables, hundreds of varieties and served with most rice-based meals.
Umeboshi (梅干): small, pickled ume fruit. Usually red and very sour, often served with bento (弁当) lunch boxes or as a filling for onigiri.
Tsukudani (佃煮): Very small fish, shellfish or seaweed stewed in sweetened soy for preservation.
[edit]Miscellaneous
Agedashi dofu (揚げ出し豆腐): cubes of deep-fried silken tofu served in hot broth.
Bento or Obento (弁当,御弁当): combination meal served in a wooden box, usually as a cold lunchbox.
Chawan mushi　(茶碗蒸し): meat (seafood and/or chicken) and vegetables steamed in egg custard.
Edamame (枝豆): boiled and salted pods of soybeans, eaten as a snack, often to accompany beer.
Himono (干物): dried fish, often aji (鯵, Japanese jack mackerel). Traditionally served for breakfast with rice, miso soup and pickles.
Hiyayakko (冷奴): chilled tofu with garnish.
Natto (納豆): fermented soybeans, stringy like melted cheese, infamous for its strong smell and slippery texture. Often eaten for breakfast. Typically popular in Kantō and Tōhoku but slowly gaining popularity in other regions in which Natto was not as popular
Ohitashi (お浸し): boiled greens such as spinach, chilled and flavoured with soy sauce, often with garnish.
Osechi (御節): traditional foods eaten at New Year.
Sunomono (酢の物): vegetables such as cucumber or wakame, or sometimes crab, marinated in rice vinegar. ]]> https://ameblo.jp/ng015856/entry-11037358970.html Mon, 03 Oct 2011 22:15:15 +0900