7upのブログ https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/ ブログの説明を入力します。 ja AGGRESSION_第４回 第四回
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では、さっそく行ってみましょう。
以下の文を読んで、設問に答えてください。

================================================================================
=◆全体的な指針
=１．論理関係を捉える
=・３大重大パターンを捉える。
=①抽象・具体②対比・並列③因果関係
=・論理マーカー
=
=２．Modifierは抜いて考える。
=３．未知の単語は推測
=
=◆ 解法
=１．設問を先に読み、lead words (key words)を確認する。
=２．段落を読む目的は、内容理解。lead wordsが含まれている部分は慎重に！
=３．ポイントは記憶と理解。確信をもって選択する。
================================================================================


The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified - as during wartime - are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.

One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.

Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.




①which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? INCORRECT answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
=============================================================================
For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified - as during wartime - are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
=============================================================================

A. People who believe that they are fighting a just war act aggressively while those who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not.
B. People who believe that that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently.
C. People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime.
D. People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime.


② According to the cognitive approach described in paragraph, all of the following may influence the decision whether to act aggressively EXCEPT a person's
A. moral value
B. previous experiences with aggression
C. instinct to avoid aggression
D. beliefs about other people's intentions









どうでしたか？ではパッセージを詳しく見ていきましょう。

◆ 内容と論理構造
①The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice.
②people believe that aggression is necessary and justified - as during wartime - are likely to act aggressively,
③whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.

④One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings.
⑤These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically.
⑥Cognitive factors intervene.
⑦People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives.
⑧Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives.
⑨For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.

⑩Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.




==要旨==
Cognitive approachについて。攻撃性は人の価値にもとづく。

①抽象：Cognitive Approachについて。我々の行動は私たちの価値に基づく。
②具体：攻撃性が必要と信じる人は、攻撃的に行動する。
③②に対する対比：攻撃性が必要だと思わない人は攻撃的に行動しない。
④抽象：EX) cognitive theory はつらい経験はよくない感覚を引き起こす。
⑤具体：これらの感覚は攻撃性を引き起こす。自動的にではないが。
⑥具体：cognitive factor が介在する。
⑦具体：人々は攻撃的に攻撃するかどうかを経験のような要因により決定する。
⑧抽象：aggressive people はしばしば他者の動機をゆがめる。という根拠がある。
⑨具体：aggressive people は、他の人が意図しないのに、害を及ぼすと考える。
⑩定義：Catharisis...緊張をやわらげること。



と、意味を変えないまま、修飾語を抜きつつ、ロジック構造を見ていくと上記のようになるでしょう。
さて、問題を見ていきましょう。



◆問◆ which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? INCORRECT answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
=============================================================================
For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified - as during wartime - are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.
=============================================================================
この問題、ハマると時間ばかり食って、その上、正解しないということもあるので、
確実に回答できるようにしていこう。

１．論理を表す接続詞に着目しよう。
まず、whereasがあるので対比の文だとわかる。
で、何と何が対比させられているのか？と一目で考えることができるようになってほしい。

攻撃性が必要と思う人は、戦時中でも攻撃的に行動する。
一方、
攻撃性が必要と思わない人は、攻撃的に行動しない。

と、攻撃性が必要と思う人と、そうでない人の対比構造が浮かび上がる。
ここまでの構造を抑えることは、問題を解くうえで必要条件である。

さて、では、選択肢を見ていこう。

A. People who believe that they are fighting a just war act aggressively while those who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not.
正義の戦争をしていると信じている人は攻撃的に行動する。一方、そうでない人は逆。
一見、よさそうにも見えるが、これはひっかけ。
攻撃性が必要と思う人。と、正義の戦争をしていると信じている人。は、別のもの。


B. People who believe that that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently.
比べているものは、攻撃性が必要と思う人。であり、比較に、対比構造(but,however, whearsなど)ではなく、比較構造(than)を使っている。
内容はかわっていなさそう。

C. People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime.
攻撃性が必要だと信じていない人は、戦争中、攻撃的に行動する。
と、センテンスの逆のことを言っている。

D. People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime.
攻撃性が必要と信じている人は、必要以上に攻撃的に行動しない。
これも、文の意味がことなるし、対比構造がなくなっている。

よって、正解はBとなる。



◆問◆ According to the cognitive approach described in paragraph, all of the following may influence the decision whether to act aggressively EXCEPT a person's
A. moral value
B. previous experiences with aggression
C. instinct to avoid aggression
D. beliefs about other people's intentions



この問題は、Fuctual Information Question の別バージョン。Negativeなものを選ばせるもの。
基本的な解き方は、Fuctual Information Question と同じなので、おそるるに足らず。

では、行ってみよう。
congnitive approachで、攻撃性に関連しないものを選択してください。
C. instinct to avoid aggression
攻撃性を避けるための本能。coginitive approachによれば、攻撃性は個人の価値・判断に基づくもの。
本能というれべるではない。よってこれが正解。

いかがでしたか？次回も頑張って行きましょう。
]]> https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10408220633.html Thu, 10 Dec 2009 22:50:18 +0900 AGGRESSION_第３回 第三回
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さて、今回で三回目。すこし長いけど、頑張っていきましょう！

まず、大まかの指針の確認から。
◆全体的な指針
１．論理関係を捉える
・３大重大パターンを捉える。
①抽象・具体②対比・並列③因果関係
・論理マーカー

２．Modifierは抜いて考える。
３．未知の単語は推測

◆ 解法
１．設問を先に読み、lead words (key words)を確認する。
２．段落を読む目的は、内容理解。lead wordsが含まれている部分は慎重に！
３．ポイントは記憶と理解。確信をもって選択する。

◆では、まずざっと上記を念頭に入れて読んでみてください。そして以下の問題を試してみましょう。
あっ。いい忘れましたが、Vocaburary Questionは、このマガジンでは取り扱いません。単語を文脈から推論したりするスキルは必要ですが、基本的にどちらか片方をしっていればある程度、できる問題だからです。ミクロ的な問題より、マクロ的なものを扱います。では、問題どうぞ。

The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demmands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as "steam engins". By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impuleses demand outlets. They(*01*) may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.


③The word they(*01*) in the passage refers to
A. future explosions
B. pent-up aggressive impulses
C. outlets
D. indirect ways

④According to paragraph, Freud believed that children experience couflict between a desire to vent aggression on their parents and
A. a frustration that their parents do not give them everything they want
B. a fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them
C. a desire to take care of their parents
D. a desire to vent aggression on other family members

⑤Freud describes people as steam engines in order to make the point that people
A. deliberately build up their aggression to make themselves stronger
B. usually release aggression in explosive ways
C. must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up
D. typically lose their aggression if they do not express it


どうでしたか？ではパッセージを詳しく見ていきましょう。

◆ 内容と論理構造
①The Psychodynamic Approach. Theorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression.
②Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life.
③Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demmands immediately.
④Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses.
⑤The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as "steam engins". By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions.
⑥Pent-up aggressive impuleses demand outlets.
⑦They(*01*) may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.


①抽象：The Psychodynamic Approach.について。内部の葛藤は人にとって重要だというポジションをとる。
攻撃性も含めて。
②具体１：フロイトの例。攻撃性は日常に不可欠なもの。
③具体２：子どもは他人に攻撃性を発散したい。親も含めて。
④対比２：しかしながら、子どもは親の罰が怖い、愛を失うのも。
⑤結果：フロイトは"steam engine"とみている。攻撃性を持つことにより、将来的に発散する。
⑥原因：攻撃性は、はけ口をもとめる。
⑦結果：攻撃性は、親に向かう。さもなければ、人生において、別のひつに向かう。



◆問◆The word they(*01*) in the passage refers to
A. future explosions
B. pent-up aggressive impulses
C. outlets
D. indirect ways
They may be expressed toward paretns ....とあるので、
何かが両親に対して向けらる。その何かを前の文から探しましょう。
そうすると、前文、Pent-up aggressive impuleses demand outlets. で、pent-up aggressive impulsesが、
はけ口を求める。とあるので、They は、aggressive impules になります。

◆問◆According to paragraph, Freud believed that children experience conflict between a desire to vent aggression on their parents and
A. a frustration that their parents do not give them everything they want
B. a fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them
C. a desire to take care of their parents
D. a desire to vent aggression on other family members

これは、Fuctual Information Question です。
まず、何が問われているかを確認しましょう。
子どもの両親に攻撃性を発散させることと、もうひとつのものとの葛藤を聞いています。
葛藤の原因となる対のものを探しましょう。

次に解法を確認しましょう。
・Lead Wordを探す。
・Lead Word周辺から根拠を探す。
です。
Lead Word: Freud

そうすると、
Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people,
including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot
gratify all of their demmands immediately.
Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love,
とありますので、それに合う選択肢を選んでいきましょう。


A. a frustration that their parents do not give them everything they want
このことはかいてありませんし、対のものとは異なります。
B. a fear that their parents will punish them and stop loving them
なかなかいい。とりあえず候補に。
C. a desire to take care of their parents
逆のことが書いてありますね。文中には。
D. a desire to vent aggression on other family members
他のfamily membersについては触れていません。

よって、解答はB となります。




◆問◆Freud describes people as steam engines in order to make the point that people
A. deliberately build up their aggression to make themselves stronger
B. usually release aggression in explosive ways
C. must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up
D. typically lose their aggression if they do not express it

これは、 Rhetorical Purpose Questions の問題です。
筆者の意図や論理構成を問う問題です。では、解法を確認しましょう。
・Lead Wordを探す
・Lead Word周辺から意味するところを把握する

これらの問題は非常によく出題されます。シンボル的な単語や文を登場させ、
その意味するところを当てさせる問題です。

さて、問題をみると、
フロイトは人をsteam engineと表現している。その理由は...

⑥原因：攻撃性は、はけ口をもとめる。
⑦結果：攻撃性は、親に向かう。さもなければ、人生において別の人に向かう。
に着目しましょう。

因果関係の論理構造です。
攻撃性....steam
と捉えて、そのsteamは、放出される。親に向かうと文中では記述されています。
人はsteamを放出する、言い換えれば、人は攻撃性を他者に放出するというのが、
steam engineを持ち出した理由です。

それにあう解答を見つけましょう。


A. deliberately build up their aggression to make themselves stronger
わざと攻撃性を増長させる。彼ら自身を強く見せるために。
ちょっと違いますね。steam engineは、攻撃性を放出させる必要があるということをいうために出されました。

B. usually release aggression in explosive ways
たいてい、爆発的な方法で、攻撃性を放出させる。
steam engineから爆発的というイメージを持ってしまうと、
ちょっと迷うところ。たいてい爆発的な方法で．．．
ちょっとキレやすい子みたいですが、攻撃性は、はけ口を求めるのであって、爆発させるものではありません。

C. must vent their aggression to prevent it from building up
攻撃性を発散しなければならない。攻撃性が積み上がっていくのを防ぐために。
steam engine のsteamを放出するというのと一致していますね。
正解はこれです。

D. typically lose their aggression if they do not express it
逆のことを言っています。もし、攻撃性を表現しなければ、のちのちの人生に現れると言っています。


一見、正解のような選択肢でも、行き過ぎた表現があれば、よく考えてみてください。
他にいい選択肢があれば、そちらを考えてみる必要があります。


では、今日もお疲れ様でした。


]]> https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10407504518.html Wed, 09 Dec 2009 23:34:13 +0900 AGGRESSION_第２回 第二回
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
◆全体的な指針
１．論理関係を捉える
・３大重大パターンを捉える。
①抽象・具体②対比・並列③因果関係
・論理マーカー

２．Modifierは抜いて考える。
３．未知の単語は推測


◆ 解法
１．設問を先に読み、lead words (key words)を確認する。
２．段落を読む目的は、内容理解。lead wordsが含まれている部分は慎重に！
３．ポイントは記憶と理解。確信をもって選択する。
=================================================================
An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggestes that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those indiviuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristices include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
=================================================================
② According to Darwin's theory of evolution,
members of a species are forced to struggle for survival because...

A. not all individuals are skilled in finding food
B. individuals try to defend their young against attackers
C. many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction
D. individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood



◆ 解析１（Modifierを抜く、そして論理構造を捉え、文理解)
sociobiology ... aggression is natural, social behavior, genetically determined.
ex) darwin's theory. aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce.
文理解をはしょりすぎたか。これだけじゃDarwin理論を理解するのに足りない。



◆ 解析２（文と文の関わりを中心に理解）論理構造
①An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggestes that aggression is natural and even desirable for people.
②Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined.
③Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows.
④Those indiviuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation.
⑤In many species, such characteristices include aggressiveness.
⑥Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.

①sociobiologyという学問においては、aggressionは、人にとっていいことだ。
②Sociobiologyの観点は、社会性について。
③Darwin進化論について。生き残るためにはstruggleしなければならない。
④優位にたつ特性をもつindividualが生き残り、次の世代の遺伝子に役に立つ。
⑤これらの優れた特性に、攻撃性が含まれる。
⑥攻撃性を持ってる人は生き残る可能性が高い。


①→②： 抽象→具体（sodiobiologyの説明）
②→③： 抽象→具体（sosiobiologyの具体例：darwin）
③→④： 抽象→具体 (darwinの具体例)
⑤ ： 結果
⑥ ： 原因


と、ざっと読んで、上記のことがわかっていればよい。


◆問◆ according to Darwin's theory of evolution,
members of a species are forced to struggle for survival because...

A. not all individuals are skilled in finding food
B. individuals try to defend their young against attackers
C. many more individuals are born than can survive until the age of reproduction
D. individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood

さて、ここで、問題に取り組んでみよう！
問題のタイプは、Fuctual Question.
Fuctual Question の特徴として、
According to paragraph, ....という一文で始まる文が圧倒的に多い。
さて、解法に従って、見ていこう。
【解法】
・Lead Wordを探す
・その周辺から解答への根拠を探す

となると、Darwin's theory だろう。
この問題、Becauseとその原因を問われているのだから、その周辺で、原因を書いてある文に着目すればよい。
そうすると、⑥文：Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce,
whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.
があり、C が、この一文の言い換えであることがわかる。

問題文を読むときに、抽象・具体の関係、因果関係をつかみながら文を読み進めていかないと、
効率的に解答することができない。そうしなければ、何度も設問と選択肢、本文を行ったり来たりしなければならず、
時間が足りなくなる。


さて、それぞれの選択肢を見ていこう。
A. not all individuals are skilled in finding food
foodに関するskillの記述は本文になし。

B. individuals try to defend their young against attackers
親が子を守るという記述は本文になし。

D. individuals with certain genes are more likely to reach adulthood
因果関係が逆。
本文では、reach adulthood → genes transmitted to next generation.　という、原因→結果
この選択肢では、good gene → reach adulthood. と、原因→結果



]]> https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10406261446.html Tue, 08 Dec 2009 12:35:40 +0900 AGGRESSION_第１回 第一回
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今日からTOEFLのリーディング対策をやっていきたいと思います。
では早速ですが、やってみましょう。



◆AGGRESSION

When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.

The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain. In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions. The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.

An offshoot of the biological approach called sociobiology suggestes that aggression is natural and even desirable for people. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. Consider Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. A struggle for survival follows. Those indiviuals who possess characteristics that provide them with an advantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. In many species, such characteristices include aggressiveness. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations.

The sociobiological view has been attacked on numerous grounds. One is that peoples's capacity to outwit other species, not their aggressiveness, appears to be the dominant factor in human survival. Another is that there is there is too much variation among people to believe that they are dominated by, or at the mercy of, aggressive impulses.

The Psychodynamic Approach. Theeorists adopting the psychodynamic approach hold that inner conflicts are crucial for understanding human behavior, including aggression. Sigmund Freud, for example, believed that aggressive impulses are inevitable reactions to the frustrations of daily life. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demmands immediately. Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. The Freudian perspective, in a sense, sees us as "steam engins". By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. Pent-up aggressive impuleses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life.

According to psychodynamic theory, the best ways to prevent harmful aggression may be to encourage less harmful aggression. In the steam-engine analogy, verbval aggression may vent some of the aggressive steam. So might cheering on one's favorite sports team. Psychoanalysts, therapists adopting a psychodynamic approach, refer to the venting of aggressive impulses "catharisys." Catharisis is theorized to be a safety valve. But research findings on the usefulness of catharsis are mixed. Some studies suggest that catharsis leads to reductions in tension and a lowered likelihood of future aggression. Other studies, however, suggest that letting some steam escape actually encourages more aggression later on.

The Cognitive Approach. Cognitive psychologists assert that our behavior is influenced by our values, by the ways in which we interpret our situations, and by choice. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified - as during wartime - are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively.

One cognitive theory suggests that aggravating and painful events trigger unpleasant feelings. These feelings, in turn, can lead to aggressive action, but not automatically. Cognitive factors intervene. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people's motives. Supporting evidence comes from research showing that aggressive people often distort other people's motives. For example, they assume that other people mean them harm when they do not.

Catharsis: In psychodynamic theory, the purging of strong emotions or the relieving of tensions.




◆下記のことは、ざっと読み終えたあとで、わかっておいたほうがいいです。

Main Topic: aggressive behaviorについての分類

The Biological Approach
1) Numerous biological structures and chemicals
ex) hypothalamus
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus
→ stereotypical aggressive behaviors
not in human



The Psychodynamic Approach.


The Cognitive Approach.




さて、問題をやっていきましょう。

=================================================================
When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.

The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals. In people, however, whose brains are
more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.

==================================================================

◆問１◆ According to paragraph 2, what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?

A. Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
B. Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
C. Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
D. Animals who lack hypothalamus display few aggessive tendencies.


-------------------------------------------------------------------
◆全体的な指針
１．論理関係を捉える
・３大重大パターンを捉える。
①抽象・具体②対比・並列③因果関係
・論理マーカー

２．Modifierは抜いて考える。
３．未知の単語は推測

◆ 前準備
指針を念頭に入れて解答を行う。文章を読む際には以下のように単純化出来るようにする。
The Biological Approachについて.
多くの生物学上の構造・化学が、攻撃性に関係してくる。
ex) hypothalamus。(★one is ... というようになっている場合は、いくつかあるうちの一つを指示しているにすぎないので、それは例と捉えること)
hypothalamus への刺激 → stereotypical aggressive behaviors in animal
人には当てはまらない。複雑なので。


◆ 解法
１．設問を先に読み、lead words (key words)を確認する。
２．段落を読む目的は、内容理解。lead wordsが含まれている部分は慎重に！
３．ポイントは記憶と理解。確信をもって選択する。



◆ キーワード
名詞：
動詞：
因果関係、抽象・具体を表すものに注意。



◆ 文理解（内容理解。何を言っているのか？）
○When one animal attacks another, it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior.
Psychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.

第一パラグラフ、When one animal attacks another と、ある動物が別の動物を攻撃する時と限定している。
つづき、it engages in the most obvious example of aggressive behavior. 攻撃行動をとる、とつづく。
攻撃行動についての話だとわかる。

○sychologists have adopted several approaches to understanding aggressive behavior in people.
精神学者がいくつかのアプローチををもっている。人間の攻撃行動を理解するために。
と続いているので、つづくパラグラフは、攻撃行動理解するためのアプローチを紹介すると予測できる。


○The Biological Approach.
とまず、これから The Biological Approachについて書かれることを示唆している。

○Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression. One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
Numerous biological structures and chemicalsが、攻撃性に関連している。
その一つに、hypothalamusがあり、それは、 a region of the brain. ということ。


○In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
certain stimuliの反応として、many animals は、instinctive aggressive reactionsを示す。


○The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
hypothalamusが、inborn reaction pattern に関連している。
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus が動物において攻撃性を指示す。


○In people, however, whose brains are
more complex, other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.
★howeverの後につづく一文は重要点が来ることが多い。
人間の脳は複雑で、他の部分の脳が本能による行動を抑制する。

まとめ。
The Biological Approach
1) Numerous biological structures and chemicals
ex) hypothalamus
electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus
→ stereotypical aggressive behaviors
not in human


◆ 解析２（文と文の関わりを中心に理解）論理構造
①The Biological Approach. Numerous biological structures and chemicals appear
to be involoved in aggression.
②One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
③In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
④The hypothalamus appears to be involved in this inborn reaction pattern:
⑤electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
⑥In people, however, whose brains are more complex,
other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.

①→②： 抽象→具体（Biological Approachの説明）
②→③： 抽象→具体（hypothalamusの説明）
③→④： 抽象→具体 ':'が使われている場合、':'以下が詳しく説明してある。
⑤ ： 原因→結果 stimulation → aggressive behaviors
⑥ ： ポイント



◆ 解析３（Modifierを抜いた文で理解する）
aggressive behavior. ★KEY WORD!!
Psychologists have adopted several approaches

The Biological Approach. ★KEY WORD!!
Numerous biological structures and chemicals★KEY WORD!!
One is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain.
many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
aggressive behaviors in many animals.
In people, however, whose brains are more complex,
other brain structures apparently moderate possible instincts.

動物の攻撃性について。いくつかのアプローチがあるらしい。
そのひとつが、The Biological Approach。
Numerous biological structures and chemicalsに着目するらしい。
例としてhypothalamusというのあって刺激に反応する脳の一部らしい。
人間にはあてはまらない。複雑なので。

ということを単純化した文で理解する必要がTOEFLには求められる。




◆問◆ According to paragraph 2,
what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?

A. Some aggressive animal species have a highly developed hypothalamus.
B. Artificial stimulation of the hypothalamus results in aggression in animals.
C. Animals behaving aggressively show increased activity in the hypothalamus.
D. Animals who lack hypothalamus display few aggessive tendencies.

さて、ここで問題に立ち返ってみよう！！
what evidence indicates that aggression in animals is related to the hypothalamus?

なにが問われているのか？何が記述されていたか？を、問題文に振り返らずに記憶と理解で考えてみよう！
ここで問われているのは、hypothalamusにかかわる攻撃性の証拠。
それを探し出せばよい。
文中では、Biblogical approach, その一例としてhypothalamusがあげられていて、
それは動物の攻撃性には脳の一部の刺激が関連している。ということ。

hypothalamusへの刺激が攻撃性に関連している証拠を求めている。

ということで、これに当てはまる解答はCとなる。
A: highly developed hypothalamusに関連する記述は文中にない。また内容が本文と逆のことを言っている。

B: electrical stimulation of part of the hypothalamus triggers stereotypical aggressive behaviors in many animals.
と本文中にあるので、これだ！と思われた方もいるかと思うが、これはひっかけ。
「electrical stimulationが、aggressive behaviors in animalの引き金となる」と文中にあるが、
Bは刺激に対する結果があると言っている。
問題文は「hypothalamusへの刺激が攻撃性に関連している証拠を求めている。」


C: In response to certain stimuli, many animals show instinctive aggressive reactions.
と上記の記述に関することが書かれている。
C の「Animals behaving aggressivelyが、increased activity in the hypothalamusにみられた。」は証拠を示しているのは、このCのみ。


D: 本文中と関係ない記述。

TOEFLの問題では、基礎さえあればだいたい２に絞れることが多い。
迷ったら意味がうまくとれていないことなので、論理構造をうまくとらえるようスキルを磨いていこう！



こんな感じで、進めていきます。
今後ともよろしくお願いいたします。






■書籍は Official Guide to the New Toefl iBT With Cd-rom
を使っています。

http://www.amazon.co.jp/Official-Guide-New-Toefl-Cd-rom/dp/0071481044/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=english-books&qid=1259896273&sr=8-2



]]> https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10403207057.html Fri, 04 Dec 2009 12:09:21 +0900 小泉首相、ウルトラマンの声優デビュー 日本の平和も考えてよ。。。 ]]> https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10364762170.html Wed, 14 Oct 2009 19:38:50 +0900 オバマノーベル平和賞受賞について But do not awfulize this facts. Obama is the man who actually realize..., HOPE. ]]> https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10361837158.html Sat, 10 Oct 2009 22:22:06 +0900 六カ国協議 https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10358328678.html Tue, 06 Oct 2009 11:07:30 +0900 ちょっとまたテスト https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10358133812.html Tue, 06 Oct 2009 00:35:59 +0900 テスト https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10358094466.html Mon, 05 Oct 2009 23:48:31 +0900 バンガロール 仕事でバンガロールに来てます。

もう２，３日過ごしているんだけど。

なんか、こっちは発展途上といった感じで、人にパワーを感じます。

俺も負けてられないな。


今日は、ゲストハウスの住人と飯を食いに行った。

近くのレストランなんだが、すごくよい味だった。

また、行こう。ここは、結構街のエリアなんだけど、牛がまだいたな。

動物で言えば、ねずみが見たことないくらいに大きかった。

新宿でみたものより、２，３倍でかかった。

すごい・・・

]]> https://ameblo.jp/seven-up/entry-10076956407.html Mon, 03 Mar 2008 01:08:16 +0900