https://ameblo.jp/takecare250/ ブログの説明を入力します。 ja cheap oakley sunglasses The country has a constant high altitude climate with a yearly mean temperature of －3°C, daily mean total global radiation of 625 kj/cm2, and 2650 h of sunshine per year (2005, Meteorological Service, Bureau of Environment, Qinghai, China). The socioeconomic status is at the lower end of the norm in China. Henan County was chosen as the study community after considering population stability, metropolitan areas, sea level, and local support into consideration.

Selection of subjects
According to the 2004 population census, the total population of Henan County was 32 616, with native Mongolians being 30 422 (93.3% of the total). The number of native Mongolians aged 40 and older were 6449 (21.2%) of all native Mongolians. Residents 40 years of age and older were identified by the household registration system.
The stratified, clustered, random sampling method was used for sampling drawing. For determining the sample size, the prevalence of blindness for adults 40 years and above was estimated to be 5%. We assumed a design effect of 1.5 (for cluster sampling), a confidence interval (CI) of 95%, an allowable error of 25%, and a response rate of 80%. These assumptions led to a sample size of 2426. We used the villages as the primary sampling units (PSUs)11 for the entire county. The number of native Mongolians in each PSU was within the range of 450–600. There were 47 PSUs actually involved in this survey, in 28 596 (94.0 %) of the county's total Mongolian population. The random digits table was used to draw 19 units from those PSUs to fit the needs of the sample. Two thousand four hundred and eighty-nine native Mongolians 40 years and older were eligible. All participants were native Mongolians who were born and grown up in the selected area.

The pre-survey stage and pilot study
Contacts were made from April 2006 to May 2006 with the local government and correlated constitutions to negotiate the detailed affairs of the survey, and informed the individuals who were in the selected PSUs. Before the formal survey began, 1 week's training and a pre-survey were conducted (the first 1 week of June 2006). The pilot study was conducted outside the study area and these results were excluded from this study. A total of 216 individuals from another county near by Henan County were examined. These examinations revealed weaknesses in the examination procedures and in the organization of the processes and procedures. These weaknesses were successfully addressed before implementation of the main study.
Data collection
The fieldwork of data collection was started and conducted from June 2006 to September 2006. A team of five ophthalmologists, administrative personnel from the villages, and the medical workers of the township clinics (they also acted as translators) carried out the data collection. The team was equipped with two vehicles, Snellen's E charts, two slit-lamp microscopes (Model YZ-5E, Crane, China), a stereo-ophthalmoscope (Keeler, UK) with a Volk 20 D lens. The team also was equipped with power generators for locations without electricity.
At locally established test sites (at local clinics), the participants underwent the examinations, including a personal interview, visual acuity, signs of dry eyes, slit-lamp assessment of anterior segment and lens, and fundus evaluation. Ophthalmologists conducted the eye examinations according to a standardized protocol.

A standardized interview was conducted on all participants and a structured questionnaire was used to obtain information based on demographic data (name, age, gender, locality, economic status, and education) and lifestyle (smoking, alcohol intake, wears a hat or sunglasses). Participants’ self-reported demographic data were assessed. Age was defined as the current age at the time of survey. Education level was ascertained by the question, ‘How many years have you been in school?’ cheap sunglasses We classified these answers into four categories: never, less than 3 years, 3–6 years, and more than 6 years. Family economic status was measured according to the number of yaks in the family, since yaks are one of the most important domestic animals for this group of Mongolian population. Three categories were classified: low (less than 10 yaks), middle (10–50 yaks), and high (more than 50 yaks). Symptoms of dry eye were assessed using a six-item validated questionnaire;12 presence of one or more of the six dry eye symptoms often or all the time was analyzed. People were asked to state when outdoors if they wore a hat, sunglasses, or stone spectacles (seldom or often). The participants were also asked questions about their cigarette-smoking history (smoker and non-smoker). Alcohol intake was categorized as no habit of alcohol consumption and a habit of alcohol consumption.

As part of the standardized eye examination, a slit-lamp (Model YZ) was used to examine the anterior segment for evidence of pterygium. The diagnosis of pterygium was made clinically by a single examiner (PL). The Schirmer's test was performed 1 min after instillation of a drop of 0.5% proparacaine (Alcaine, Alcon-Couveur, Belgium), and any visible fluid in the inferior fornix or lid margin was gently dried with a cotton swab. A precalibrated filter strip (Tianjin Jingming New Technological Development Co. Ltd, China) was then placed temporally in each lower fornix and left in place for 5 min. The patient was encouraged to close his/her eyes but allowed to blink normally. After 5 min, the strip was removed, and the amount of wetting was recorded. The tear-film breakup time test was repeated three times for each eye, and the average time was recorded.

Diagnostic criteria
Pterygium was diagnosed if a characteristic raised fleshy growth crossing the corneoscleral limbus and encroaching on the clear cornea was present13 or if pterygium surgery had been performed. A system of grading pterygia according to their morphology has been developed for use in pterygium studies.14, 15 Grade T1 (transparent) includes a pterygium in which episcleral vessels underlying the body of the pterygium are clearly distinguished and unobscured and grade T3 (opaque) a thick, fleshy pterygium in which episcleral vessels underlying the body of the pterygium are totally obscured. All other pterygia that do not fall into these two categories fall into grade T2 (intermediate). If a patient had bilateral pterygia, the grade was classified according to the higher grade in either eye. Age-related cataracts were assessed by use of the Lens Opacity Classification System III,16, 17 by a senior ophthalmologist (XC). Subjects with congenital or traumatic cataracts in one or both eyes were excluded from this analysis.
Data processing and statistic analysis
Fixed people for fixed items filled the results of the survey in the forms. Questions were solved by discussion with the entire team. SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) version 12.0 was used for statistical analysis and P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. The prevalence rates and 95% CI of pterygium for subjects were calculated. Sunglasses Hut The association between gender, age, educational level, lifestyle, and other variables and the risk of pterygia was estimated by the odds ratio (OR) and its 95% CI. The significance of visual acuity on patients with different types of pterygium was evaluated by χ2-test. The independent effect of risk factors was evaluated using logistic regression models.
This survey was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Qinghai Provincial Health Bureau and was carried out in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki Principal (revised in 2000). All the participants gave verbal consent and all the examinations and treatment were free of charge.

This article is quoted from http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v23/n2/full/6703005a.html ]]> https://ameblo.jp/takecare250/entry-11304141434.html Mon, 16 Jul 2012 18:52:20 +0900 cheap oakley sunglasses These problems include pterygium, pinguecula, age-related macular degeneration, cataracts, ocular surface squamous neoplasia, and intraocular malignant melanoma.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 UV exposure may also be involved in the development of ocular melanoma and macular degeneration.12, 13, 14 Ocular sun protection practices such as wearing sunglasses (especially wrap-arounds), wide-brimmed hats, and avoiding sun exposure particularly during mid-day hours have been recommended, in the attempt to minimize sun-associated ocular damage.

There have been extensive campaigns promoting bodily sun protection. Although some of these recommendations apply to ophthalmic sun protection (eg wearing wide-brimmed hats and avoiding mid-day sun), there has been a paucity of directly targeted ophthalmic sun protection campaigns. Similarly, several population studies have addressed the role of skin protection, but research specifically related to eye protection and knowledge is scant. Such information would be important in the formulation of future interventional strategies aimed at preventing excessive ophthalmic UV exposure.

As a group, the young are more susceptible to the cumulative effects of UV exposure on the skin as well as the eyes.11, 15, 16 Also, protective behaviours are developed during the teenage years and these behaviours will ultimately carry through into adulthood. Thus, we feel that high school students are an important target group, with respect to research into sun-related ophthalmic behaviours, and the future implementation of promotional campaigns.

Lee et al17conducted a study on adolescent ocular sun protective behaviour and knowledge in Queensland Australia in 1995. In all, 652 systematically sampled Grade 10 students, aged between 13 and 17 years, were surveyed with a standardized questionnaire. Overall, this group of subjects demonstrated a moderate level of knowledge with respect to UV, sunlight, and the eyes. cheap sunglasses The knowledge of the effects of sunlight and body protection was higher than the knowledge of the effects of sunlight and eye protection. This was a well-conducted study which unfortunately only studied urban year 10 student's knowledge and attitudes. We will base our study on this, with the permission of the authors.

This study aims to elucidate the knowledge of high school students in South Australia regarding ophthalmic effects of sunlight and UV light as well as behaviours concerning eye and body protection. The preferred type of sunglasses, the frequency of use, as well as factors that determine ophthalmic sun protective behaviours are reviewed. We compare our results with the original study of 1995 by Lee G et al.

The 1995 questionnaire, taken from the study by Lee et al17 was used, with their permission. The survey was based on a previous instrument design and on the Health Belief Model. The following alterations were made:

One class from each secondary school level (year 8–12) was surveyed in each randomly chosen school across South Australia, ensuring a good range of age groups being sampled.
The surveys were administered by teachers and completed during school time, under exam-like conditions.
Ethical approval was obtained from the South Australian Department of Education and the Royal Adelaide Hospital. The study adhered to the tenants of Declaration of Helsinki and informed consent was obtained from students and parents. Schools were randomly selected in collaboration with the research department of the South Australian Department of Education to represent a range of socioeconomic areas, as well as rural and urban areas.

Students were surveyed during August–September 2004 compared to October–November 1995 by Lee et al.17 The survey was administered by teachers in each chosen school during a class session. Each response was given a score to reflect the relative appropriateness or accuracy of the response. Four sets of items were looked at, each measuring a different aspect of student knowledge. Sections included: knowledge of ‘sunlight effects on the eye’ – seven items (maximum score=15); ‘ultraviolet light’ – seven items (maximum score=15); ‘eye protection’– five items (maximum score=15); ‘body protection’– two items (maximum score=14). The maximum score possible was 59. Item weightings were taken from previously published studies.17, 18

Several items in the survey were used to measure the relative risk of an individual's eyes to UV damage. These concerned individual phenotypic characteristics, such as eye, skin, and hair colour, and the amount of recreational outdoor exposure. The highest risk factor score of 14 was attributed to an individual with high levels of outdoor recreation, blue eyes, blond/red hair, and a fair complexion. This was based on previous studies.11, 17, 19 As an example of the weighting, a question asking whether ultraviolet light affects the eyes, was scores as follows: yes=2, not sure=1, no=0.

A number of items looked at attitudes toward the use of sunglasses. Other questions were included to examine ownership as well as the frequency of use.

The data was analysed by the analysis of variance (ANOVA), Sunglasses Hut as well as the Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel methods. To determine whether awareness of the protective effects of sunglasses influences the price students are willing to pay for glasses, the Bowker's test of symmetry was used. Statistical significance was defined at the 95% level (P<0.05).

This article is quoted from http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v22/n6/full/6702619a.html ]]> https://ameblo.jp/takecare250/entry-11304139352.html Mon, 16 Jul 2012 18:48:36 +0900
Design Postal questionnaire.

Subjects and methods Four hundred dentists were selected at random for inclusion in the study from the UK 2004 Dentists Register. cheap oakley sunglasses They were invited to complete a questionnaire that ascertained their gender and age, current eyesight status and method of correction, elapsed time interval since their last eyesight test and reason for attendance. In addition, the use and power of magnification was sought along with the adoption of protective eyewear. Responses were coded and placed in a relational database to facilitate interrogation and subsequent statistical analysis.

Results The questionnaire return rate was 63% (247 and allowing for the seven questionnaires returned marked unknown at this address). Of these 158 were males and 81 female. The majority worked in general dental practice. Those with known eyesight deficiencies were statistically more likely (p <0.01) to attend for routine eye examination. Sixteen percent of respondents failed to attend for routine eye examination at least every two years. The mean age of those who had detected a change in their eyesight and sought examination was 43.59 (SD = 10.57) for males and 39.07 years (SD = 9.41) for females. This mirrored closely the mean age when the use of magnification was adopted (males = 42.39 (10.30), females = 40.33 (10.55)). The use of magnification was not universally adopted. Eye protection compliance was a low as 57% when using laboratory cutting equipment.

Conclusions Although compliance with accepted recommendations for biannual eyesight testing was higher than that for the general population, not all dentists complied. The adoption of protective eyewear was patchy and exposed dentists to unnecessary risk.

Introduction
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Introduction

Modern dentistry is founded upon a preventive philosophy in which patients are encouraged to attend for regular examination. cheap sunglasses In this way potential problems may be detected at an early stage and appropriate action taken before they become more serious. In light of this ethos and the considerable demand upon the eyes that the practice of dentistry requires,1 it would seem logical that eyecare would be high on the list of priorities of the dental team. Previous reports,2, 3 however, suggest that this is not the case, with only around 57% of dentists3 reporting that they had been examined within the last two years. Interestingly, in a study of dental students, those who had had their eyesight corrected were more likely to attend for examination every two years than those without correction.2 With increasing age, eyesight testing becomes ever more important, for the eye is susceptible to a diminution in visual acuity, accommodation and yellow hue discrimination with increases in glare and contrast sensitivity.4 Such changes may manifest as a progressive increase in operating distance5 and the need to use magnification whilst operating. The insidious onset of these changes has lead some to suggest that all dentists should undergo eyesight testing at intervals of two years until aged 50, and more frequently thereafter.4 This generally agrees well with that of the sight test intervals recommended by the Association of Optometrists6 for the general population but, presumably on safety grounds, is more frequent for those aged 50 and over.

Even with regular eye examinations, the dentist's eyes are vulnerable from flying debris, viral, bacterial and chemical contamination when treating patients. Eye injuries accounted for 10% of occupational injuries to dental personnel over a nine year period in a dental hospital.7 Contamination of the eye by aerosol with body fluid, such as blood and saliva, carries with it the risk of bacterial and viral infection. Eye infections are common among dentists8 and, due to the nature of the surface of the eye, there is no need for it to be breached to cause infection.9 More obviously, direct mechanical trauma from flying debris or chemical injury from the splatter of materials may result in discomfort with loss of sight or long-term visual impairment as potential sequelae.10 Although the British Dental Association9 advocates that 'operators and close support clinical staff must protect their eyes against foreign bodies, splatters and aerosols that may arise during operative dentistry', a recent survey of 200 general dental practitioners has found only 47% of dentists to comply – when one removes the effects upon this statistic of those who routinely wear prescription glasses.10 Although for optimum protection personal glasses should be fitted with plastic lenses and additional side shields, only a relatively small proportion were found to do so.10 There is thus much room for improvement in eye protection practices.

Accepting the obvious importance of good eyesight for the practice of dentistry, in order to provide best care, this investigation sought to determine the current eyecare behaviour of randomly selected dentists by means of a postal questionnaire and compare this against published standards concerning the frequency of sight test intervals6 and eye protection.9

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Materials and methods

A total of 400 dentists were selected at random for inclusion in this study. Randomisation was achieved by sequentially numbering each entry in the electronic version of the 2004 Dentists Register and selecting those whose number coincided with a list of random numbers generated using the random number function in the spreadsheet package Excel (Microsoft Excel 2002, Microsoft Ltd, Reading, UK).

A two-page A4 postal questionnaire was designed, according to the principles outlined by Dillman,11 to ascertain the gender and age of the respondents. This also covered current knowledge of eyesight status and its method of correction, the elapsed time interval since the last eyesight test together with the reason for attendance. The area(s) of dentistry in which the respondent worked was determined along with their use of protective eyewear. In addition, the use of magnification, together with the reasons and length of time this had been adopted and power of magnification, were asked for. The questionnaire was piloted informally upon a convenience sample of dentists, drawn from the senior house officers and visiting general dental practitioners working at Dundee Dental Hospital, so that adjustments could be made to its clarity, in the light of their comments, before its mass mailing. Thereafter it was mailed out to the 400 dentists selected for inclusion in the study. Sunglasses Hut An introductory letter and stamped addressed envelope, for the return of completed questionnaires to the researchers, were included in this distribution. The letter invited participation in the study and stated that non-return of the questionnaire would be indicative of a lack of consent to participate in the study. To ensure absolute confidentiality of all responses, no hidden codes were embedded in any part of the mailing and, as a consequence, it was totally impossible for the investigators to contact any of the potential participants. Total anonymity of all responders was thus guaranteed.

A relational database was created using Paradox (Paradox Version 3.5, Borland International, CA 95067-0001, USA) for data input from the completed questionnaires and flexible interrogation. Subsequent statistical analyses were performed using statistical programs within Statistics for Social Scientists12 (Chi square), Excel (sample descriptive statistics) and Prism (GraphPad Prism®, Version 4, GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA 92121, USA) (Spearman correlation). The threshold for statistical significance of all comparative tests was a p value of less than 0.05.

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Results

Of the 400 questionnaires mailed, 247 completed questionnaires were received for analysis. A further seven questionnaires were returned by Royal Mail marked unknown at this address. This gave a response rate of 63%.

Of the respondents who completed the gender question, 158 were male and 81 female. The mean age of male responders was 46.3 years (SD = 10.9, range = 50, minimum age = 26 and maximum age = 76 years, median = 47.0) and for females this was 41.5 years (SD = 9.8, range = 48, minimum age = 25 and maximum age = 73 years, median = 40.0).

Table 1 summarises the eyesight status of the respondents according to gender. A Chi square test revealed no statistically significant difference in the distribution of eyesight status between the male and female responders.

This article is quoted from http://www.nature.com/bdj/journal/v203/n4/full/bdj.2007.580.html ]]> https://ameblo.jp/takecare250/entry-11304133515.html Mon, 16 Jul 2012 18:42:08 +0900